1
|
Relimpio D, Serna Moreno MDC, Horta Muñoz S, Viaplana E, Mancera JC, Urniza A, de la Fuente J, Gortázar C. Improved stability and specificity of baits for oral administration of substances to wild boar. Prev Vet Med 2024; 229:106241. [PMID: 38878496 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.106241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024]
Abstract
Oral vaccination is one of the most effective interventions for disease control in wildlife. As a result of the recent global reemergence of African swine fever and ongoing classical swine fever and animal tuberculosis, oral vaccination of Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa) receives increased interest. Several baits for wild boar and feral pigs have been described, but developing more stable and personalized formulations is important. This paper proposes a new bait formulation primarily composed of corn flour, piglet feed, sugar, and honey as a binder to obtain improved elasticity. The bait consists of a matrix with no protective coats, has a hemispherical shape (ø 3.4 ×1.6 cm), and displays an anise aroma and blue color. The color and aroma did not affect bait choice by wild boar, while bait coloring contributed to avoid consumption by non-target species (corvids). Baits with the new formulation were significantly more resistant to humidity and high temperatures than previous versions. Simulations suggest that baits with the new formulation are elastic enough to resist impacts from a maximum altitude of 750 m. Thus, the new bait prototype solves several problems of previous bait formulations while keeping a format that can be selectively consumed by piglets and adult wild boar.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Relimpio
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (CSIC & UCLM), Ronda de Toledo 12, Ciudad Real 13003, Spain
| | - María Del Carmen Serna Moreno
- UCLM, Instituto de Investigación Aplicada a la Industria Aeronáutica, Escuela de Ingeniería Industrial y Aeroespacial de Toledo, Campus de Fábrica de Armas, Av. de Carlos III, Toledo 45004, Spain
| | - Sergio Horta Muñoz
- UCLM, Instituto de Investigación Aplicada a la Industria Aeronáutica, Escuela de Ingeniería Industrial y Aeroespacial de Toledo, Campus de Fábrica de Armas, Av. de Carlos III, Toledo 45004, Spain
| | - Elisenda Viaplana
- Zoetis Manufacturing and Research Spain, Carr. De Camprodon, s/n, L'Hostalnou de Bianya, Girona 17813, Spain
| | | | - Alicia Urniza
- Zoetis Manufacturing and Research Spain, Carr. De Camprodon, s/n, L'Hostalnou de Bianya, Girona 17813, Spain
| | - José de la Fuente
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (CSIC & UCLM), Ronda de Toledo 12, Ciudad Real 13003, Spain; Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Christian Gortázar
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (CSIC & UCLM), Ronda de Toledo 12, Ciudad Real 13003, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Hayama Y, Sawai K, Murato Y, Yamaguchi E, Kondo S, Yamamoto T. Analysis of effective spatial range of oral vaccination against classical swine fever for wild boar. Prev Vet Med 2023; 221:106080. [PMID: 38029645 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2023.106080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Classical swine fever (CSF) re-emerged in Gifu Prefecture, central Japan, in September 2018 and is currently widespread in wild boar populations. Due to its widespread in wild boars, an oral mass vaccination strategy was initiated in March 2019, employing a commercial bait vaccine that is a live attenuated vaccine. To enhance the effectiveness of oral vaccination, it is crucial to determine the vaccine's effective spatial range. This understanding is essential for devising a comprehensive vaccination strategy, which should also include a preliminary investigation of wild boar habitats before vaccination. This study aimed to estimate the effective range of oral vaccination for wild boars against CSF by analyzing the geographical relationship between immune wild boars and vaccination points within the vaccination areas in Gifu Prefecture. This study utilized oral vaccination data from April 2021 to March 2022. The prevalence of CSF infections in wild boars remained below 5% in this period, suggesting limited disease transmission and immune wild boars were considered to be induced by the effect of vaccination. Two vaccination campaigns were conducted during this period, with almost 2000 vaccination points each. To investigate the factors associated with the intensity (i.e., density) of immune wild boar, the nearest distances to a vaccination point and to a susceptible wild boar were evaluated as explanatory variables. The Rhohat procedure and point process model were utilized to analyze the relationship between the intensity of immune wild boars and the explanatory variables. The point process model revealed a significant decrease in the intensity of immune wild boars when the distance from the nearest vaccination point exceeded 500 m, indicating that the effective spatial range of bait vaccination is within 500 m of the vaccination point. Although the distance to the nearest susceptible animal did not show significance in the model, Rhohat plots indicated that the intensity of immune wild boars decreased at distances greater than 1200 m from the nearest susceptible wild boar. This finding highlights the importance of investigating susceptible wild boar populations within a range of at least 1200 m from a vaccination point before implementation. The present study revealed the effective range of oral vaccination for wild boars against CSF and indicated the importance of investigating susceptible wild boar habitats around vaccination points before the implementation of vaccination. These findings may help improve the effectiveness of oral vaccinations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Hayama
- Division of Transboundary Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
| | - Kotaro Sawai
- Division of Transboundary Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Murato
- Division of Transboundary Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Emi Yamaguchi
- Division of Transboundary Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Sonoko Kondo
- Division of Transboundary Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Takehisa Yamamoto
- Division of Transboundary Animal Disease Research, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Polyacrylate-GnRH Peptide Conjugate as an Oral Contraceptive Vaccine Candidate. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13071081. [PMID: 34371772 PMCID: PMC8308917 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13071081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Contraceptive vaccines are designed to elicit immune responses against major components of animal reproductive systems. These vaccines, which are most commonly administered via injection, typically target gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). However, the need to restrain animals for treatment limits the field applications of injectable vaccines. Oral administration would broaden vaccine applicability. We explored contraceptive vaccine candidates composed of GnRH peptide hormone, universal T helper PADRE (P), and a poly(methylacrylate) (PMA)-based delivery system. When self-assembled into nanoparticles, PMA-P-GnRH induced the production of high IgG titers after subcutaneous and oral administration in mice. PADRE was then replaced with pig T helper derived from the swine flu virus, and the vaccine was tested in pigs. High levels of systemic antibodies were produced in pigs after both injection and oral administration of the vaccine. In conclusion, we developed a simple peptide–polymer conjugate that shows promise as an effective, adjuvant-free, oral GnRH-based contraceptive vaccine.
Collapse
|
4
|
Abbott RC, Russell RE, Richgels KLD, Tripp DW, Matchett MR, Biggins DE, Rocke TE. Factors Influencing Uptake of Sylvatic Plague Vaccine Baits by Prairie Dogs. ECOHEALTH 2018; 15:12-22. [PMID: 29159477 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-017-1294-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Revised: 08/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Sylvatic plague vaccine (SPV) is a virally vectored bait-delivered vaccine expressing Yersinia pestis antigens that can protect prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) from plague and has potential utility as a management tool. In a large-scale 3-year field trial, SPV-laden baits containing the biomarker rhodamine B (used to determine bait consumption) were distributed annually at a rate of approximately 100-125 baits/hectare along transects at 58 plots encompassing the geographic ranges of four species of prairie dogs. We assessed site- and individual-level factors related to bait uptake in prairie dogs to determine which were associated with bait uptake rates. Overall bait uptake for 7820 prairie dogs sampled was 70% (95% C.I. 69.9-72.0). Factors influencing bait uptake rates by prairie dogs varied by species, however, in general, heavier animals had greater bait uptake rates. Vegetation quality and day of baiting influenced this relationship for black-tailed, Gunnison's, and Utah prairie dogs. For these species, baiting later in the season, when normalized difference vegetation indices (a measure of green vegetation density) are lower, improves bait uptake by smaller animals. Consideration of these factors can aid in the development of species-specific SPV baiting strategies that maximize bait uptake and subsequent immunization of prairie dogs against plague.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel C Abbott
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Rd., Madison, WI, 53711, USA
| | - Robin E Russell
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Rd., Madison, WI, 53711, USA
| | - Katherine L D Richgels
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Rd., Madison, WI, 53711, USA
| | - Daniel W Tripp
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Wildlife Health Program, 4330 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Marc R Matchett
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge, Lewistown, MT, USA
| | - Dean E Biggins
- Fort Collins Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Tonie E Rocke
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Rd., Madison, WI, 53711, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Camacho A, Eggo RM, Goeyvaerts N, Vandebosch A, Mogg R, Funk S, Kucharski AJ, Watson CH, Vangeneugden T, Edmunds WJ. Real-time dynamic modelling for the design of a cluster-randomized phase 3 Ebola vaccine trial in Sierra Leone. Vaccine 2016; 35:544-551. [PMID: 28024952 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Revised: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Declining incidence and spatial heterogeneity complicated the design of phase 3 Ebola vaccine trials during the tail of the 2013-16 Ebola virus disease (EVD) epidemic in West Africa. Mathematical models can provide forecasts of expected incidence through time and can account for both vaccine efficacy in participants and effectiveness in populations. Determining expected disease incidence was critical to calculating power and determining trial sample size. METHODS In real-time, we fitted, forecasted, and simulated a proposed phase 3 cluster-randomized vaccine trial for a prime-boost EVD vaccine in three candidate regions in Sierra Leone. The aim was to forecast trial feasibility in these areas through time and guide study design planning. RESULTS EVD incidence was highly variable during the epidemic, especially in the declining phase. Delays in trial start date were expected to greatly reduce the ability to discern an effect, particularly as a trial with an effective vaccine would cause the epidemic to go extinct more quickly in the vaccine arm. Real-time updates of the model allowed decision-makers to determine how trial feasibility changed with time. CONCLUSIONS This analysis was useful for vaccine trial planning because we simulated effectiveness as well as efficacy, which is possible with a dynamic transmission model. It contributed to decisions on choice of trial location and feasibility of the trial. Transmission models should be utilised as early as possible in the design process to provide mechanistic estimates of expected incidence, with which decisions about sample size, location, timing, and feasibility can be determined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Camacho
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - R M Eggo
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK.
| | | | | | - R Mogg
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, Spring House, PA, USA
| | - S Funk
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - A J Kucharski
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - C H Watson
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | | | - W J Edmunds
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Saubusse T, Masson JD, Le Dimma M, Abrial D, Marcé C, Martin-Schaller R, Dupire A, Le Potier MF, Rossi S. How to survey classical swine fever in wild boar (Sus scrofa) after the completion of oral vaccination? Chasing away the ghost of infection at different spatial scales. Vet Res 2016; 47:21. [PMID: 26810218 PMCID: PMC4727256 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-015-0289-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Oral mass vaccination (OMV) is considered as an efficient strategy for controlling classical swine fever (CSF) in wild boar. After the completion of vaccination, the presence of antibodies in 6–12 month-old hunted wild boars was expected to reflect a recent CSF circulation. Nevertheless, antibodies could also correspond to the long-lasting of maternal antibodies. This paper relates an experience of surveillance which lasted 4 years after the completion of OMV in a formerly vaccinated area, in north-eastern France (2010–2014). First, we conducted a retrospective analysis of the serological data collected in 6–12 month-old hunted wild boars from 2010 up to 2013, using a spatial Bayesian model accounting for hunting data autocorrelation and heterogeneity. At the level of the whole area, seroprevalence in juvenile boars decreased from 28% in 2010–2011 down to 1% in 2012–2013, but remained locally high (above 5%). The model revealed the existence of one particular seroprevalence hot-spot where a longitudinal survey of marked animals was conducted in 2013–2014, for deciphering the origin of antibodies. Eleven out of 107 captured piglets were seropositive when 3–4 months-old, but their antibody titres progressively decreased until 6–7 months of age. These results suggest piglets were carrying maternal antibodies, few of them carrying maternal antibodies lasting until the hunting season. Our study shows that OMV may generate confusion in the CSF surveillance several years after the completion of vaccination. We recommend using quantitative serological tools, hunting data modelling and capture approaches for better interpreting serological results after vaccination completion. Surveillance perspectives are further discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thibault Saubusse
- ONCFS, Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, Unité Sanitaire de la Faune, Micropolis, la Bérardie, Belle Aureille, 05000, Gap, France.
| | - Jean-Daniel Masson
- ONCFS, Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, Unité Sanitaire de la Faune, Micropolis, la Bérardie, Belle Aureille, 05000, Gap, France.
| | - Mireille Le Dimma
- Anses, Laboratoire de Ploufragan/Plouzané, Unité Virologie Immunologie Porcines, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.
| | - David Abrial
- INRA, Unité d'Epidémiologie Animale, Theix, 63122, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France.
| | - Clara Marcé
- Direction générale de l'alimentation, Bureau de la santé animale, Paris, France.
| | - Regine Martin-Schaller
- Direction départementale de la protection des populations du Bas-Rhin, Strasbourg, France.
| | - Anne Dupire
- Direction départementale de la protection des populations de la Moselle, Metz, France.
| | - Marie-Frédérique Le Potier
- Anses, Laboratoire de Ploufragan/Plouzané, Unité Virologie Immunologie Porcines, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.
| | - Sophie Rossi
- ONCFS, Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, Unité Sanitaire de la Faune, Micropolis, la Bérardie, Belle Aureille, 05000, Gap, France.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Goller KV, Gabriel C, Dimna ML, Potier MFL, Rossi S, Staubach C, Merboth M, Beer M, Blome S. Evolution and molecular epidemiology of classical swine fever virus during a multi-annual outbreak amongst European wild boar. J Gen Virol 2015; 97:639-645. [PMID: 26684209 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Classical swine fever is a viral disease of pigs that carries tremendous socio-economic impact. In outbreak situations, genetic typing is carried out for the purpose of molecular epidemiology in both domestic pigs and wild boar. These analyses are usually based on harmonized partial sequences. However, for high-resolution analyses towards the understanding of genetic variability and virus evolution, full-genome sequences are more appropriate. In this study, a unique set of representative virus strains was investigated that was collected during an outbreak in French free-ranging wild boar in the Vosges-du-Nord mountains between 2003 and 2007. Comparative sequence and evolutionary analyses of the nearly full-length sequences showed only slow evolution of classical swine fever virus strains over the years and no impact of vaccination on mutation rates. However, substitution rates varied amongst protein genes; furthermore, a spatial and temporal pattern could be observed whereby two separate clusters were formed that coincided with physical barriers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katja V Goller
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Claudia Gabriel
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Mireille Le Dimna
- Anses Ploufragan/Plouzané Laboratory, Swine Immunology and Virology Unit, Zoopole Les Croix, 22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - Marie-Frédérique Le Potier
- Anses Ploufragan/Plouzané Laboratory, Swine Immunology and Virology Unit, Zoopole Les Croix, 22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - Sophie Rossi
- Wildlife and Hunting Agency, Wildlife Diseases Unit, Micropolis, la Bérardie Belle Aureille, 05000 Gap, France
| | - Christoph Staubach
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Matthias Merboth
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Sandra Blome
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Rossi S, Staubach C, Blome S, Guberti V, Thulke HH, Vos A, Koenen F, Le Potier MF. Controlling of CSFV in European wild boar using oral vaccination: a review. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:1141. [PMID: 26557109 PMCID: PMC4615961 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Classical swine fever (CSF) is among the most detrimental diseases for the swine industry worldwide. Infected wild boar populations can play a crucial role in CSF epidemiology and controlling wild reservoirs is of utmost importance for preventing domestic outbreaks. Oral mass vaccination (OMV) has been implemented to control CSF in wild boars and limit the spill over to domestic pigs. This retrospective overview of vaccination experiences illustrates the potential for that option. The C-strain live vaccine was confirmed to be highly efficacious and palatable baits were developed for oral delivery in free ranging wild boars. The first field trials were performed in Germany in the 1990’s and allowed deploying oral baits at a large scale. The delivery process was further improved during the 2000’s among different European countries. Optimal deployment has to be early regarding disease emergence and correctly designed regarding the landscape structure and the natural food sources that can compete with oral baits. OMV deployment is also highly dependent on a local veterinary support working closely with hunters, wildlife and forestry agencies. Vaccination has been the most efficient strategy for CSF control in free ranging wild boar when vaccination is wide spread and lasting for a sufficient period of time. Alternative disease control strategies such as intensified hunting or creating physical boundaries such as fences have been, in contrast, seldom satisfactory and reliable. However, monitoring outbreaks has been challenging during and after vaccination deployment since OMV results in a low probability to detect virus-positive animals and the live-vaccine currently available does not allow serological differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals. The development of a new marker vaccine and companion test is thus a promising option for better monitoring outbreaks during OMV deployment as well as help to better determine when to stop vaccination efforts. After rabies in red fox, the use of OMV against CSF in European wild boar can be considered as a second example of successful disease control in wildlife. The 30 years of disease control experience included in this review may provide options for improving future disease management within wild populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Rossi
- Unité Sanitaire de la Faune, Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage Gap, France
| | - Christoph Staubach
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health Greifswald, Germany
| | - Sandra Blome
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health Greifswald, Germany
| | - Vittorio Guberti
- Instituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale Ozzano dell'Emilia, Italy
| | - Hans-Hermann Thulke
- Department of Ecological Modelling, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ad Vos
- Development Vaccines Technologies, IDT Biologika GmbH Dessau-Rosslau, Germany
| | - Frank Koenen
- Operational Direction Interactions and Surveillance, Centrum voor Onderzoek in Diergeneeskunde en Agrochemie-Centre d'Etude et de Recherches Vétérinaires et Agrochimiques Ukkel, Belgium
| | | |
Collapse
|