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Liu S, Cao Y, Zhang Y. Regulatory roles of RNA methylation in vascular lesions in ocular and cardiopulmonary diseases. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2024:1-15. [PMID: 38957015 DOI: 10.1080/10408363.2024.2370267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
RNA methylation is a widespread regulatory mechanism that controls gene expression in physiological processes. In recent years, the mechanisms and functions of RNA methylation under diseased conditions have been increasingly unveiled by RNA sequencing technologies with large scale and high resolution. In this review, the fundamental concept of RNA methylation is introduced, and the common types of transcript methylation and their machineries are described. Then, the regulatory roles of RNA methylation, particularly N6-methyladenosine and 5-methylcytosine, in the vascular lesions of ocular and cardiopulmonary diseases are discussed and compared. The ocular diseases include corneal neovascularization, retinopathy of prematurity, diabetic retinopathy, and pathologic myopia; whereas the cardiopulmonary ailments involve atherosclerosis and pulmonary hypertension. This review hopes to shed light on the common regulatory mechanisms underlying the vascular lesions in these ocular and cardiopulmonary diseases, which may be conducive to developing therapeutic strategies in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyi Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Retinal Functions and Diseases, Tianjin Branch of National Clinical Research Center for Ocular Disease, Eye Institute and School of Optometry, Tianjin Medical University Eye Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Yunshan Cao
- Department of Cardiology, Gansu Provincial Hospital, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Retinal Functions and Diseases, Tianjin Branch of National Clinical Research Center for Ocular Disease, Eye Institute and School of Optometry, Tianjin Medical University Eye Hospital, Tianjin, China
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2
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Xia Y, Zhang Y, Huang J, Chen B, Jiang Y, Sun Z, Liu Y. N6-Methyladenosine Modifications in Pulmonary Hypertension. Pharmacology 2023; 108:497-503. [PMID: 37742623 DOI: 10.1159/000533588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The most prevalent kind of RNA methylation modification existing in eukaryotes is N6-methyladenosine (m6A), which is a reversible type of posttranscriptional modification. SUMMARY Many studies have reported that m6A participates in cell differentiation, self-renewal, invasion, and apoptosis by modifying protein synthesis. Furthermore, m6A modification is also involved in disease progression and pulmonary vascular remodeling in pulmonary hypertension. However, very few researchers have investigated the effect of m6A modifications on pulmonary hypertension. KEY MESSAGES Here, we have reviewed the latest research advances in the field of m6A RNA methylation in pulmonary hypertension and explored its regulatory role in pulmonary hypertension development and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Xia
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Lianyungang Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Lianyungang, China,
| | - Yanyan Zhang
- Department of Geriatrics, The Affiliated Lianyungang Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Lianyungang, China
| | - Jie Huang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Lianyungang Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Lianyungang, China
| | - Bing Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Lianyungang Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Lianyungang, China
| | - YanJiao Jiang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Lianyungang Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Lianyungang, China
| | - Zengxian Sun
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Lianyungang Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Lianyungang, China
| | - Yun Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Lianyungang Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Lianyungang, China
- Department of Pharmacy, Lianyungang Clinical College of Nanjing Medical University, Lianyungang, China
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3
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Zhao SS, Liu J, Wu QC, Zhou XL. Role of histone lactylation interference RNA m 6A modification and immune microenvironment homeostasis in pulmonary arterial hypertension. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1268646. [PMID: 37771377 PMCID: PMC10522917 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1268646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a severe disease resulting from progressive increases in pulmonary vascular resistance and pulmonary vascular remodeling, ultimately leading to right ventricular failure and even death. Hypoxia, inflammation, immune reactions, and epigenetic modifications all play significant contributory roles in the mechanism of PAH. Increasingly, epigenetic changes and their modifying factors involved in reprogramming through regulation of methylation or the immune microenvironment have been identified. Among them, histone lactylation is a new post-translational modification (PTM), which provides a novel visual angle on the functional mechanism of lactate and provides a promising diagnosis and treatment method for PAH. This review detailed introduces the function of lactate as an important molecule in PAH, and the effects of lactylation on N6-methyladenosine (m6A) and immune cells. It provides a new perspective to further explore the development of lactate regulation of pulmonary hypertension through histone lactylation modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai-shuai Zhao
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Jinlong Liu
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qi-cai Wu
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Xue-liang Zhou
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
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Yang X, Wang C, Zhu G, Guo Z, Fan L. METTL14/YTHDF1 axis-modified UCHL5 aggravates atherosclerosis by activating the NLRP3 inflammasome. Exp Cell Res 2023; 427:113587. [PMID: 37044315 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2023.113587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) phenotypic switching contributes to VSMC proliferation and migration in atherosclerosis (AS). Nevertheless, the regulatory mechanism of VSMC phenotypic switching during AS progression is unclear. Here, the role and regulatory mechanism of UCHL5 in VSMC phenotypic switching during AS progression were investigated. METHODS ApoE-/- mice were fed with high fat diet to establish AS model in vivo. VSMCs stimulated by ox-LDL were used as AS cellular model. VSMC proliferation and migration were examined by CCK8 assay and transwell assay, respectively. The levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines were assessed using ELISA. The interactions between METTL14/YTHDF1, UCHL5 and NLRP3 were analyzed using RIP and/or dual-luciferase reporter gene and/or Co-IP assays. NLRP3 ubiquitination was analyzed by ubiquitination analysis. RESULTS UCHL5 was significantly upregulated in AS patients and ox-LDL-treated VSMCs. UCHL5 silencing ameliorated plaque formation and vascular remodeling in vivo and suppressed ox-LDL-induced VSMC proliferation, migration, inflammation and phenotypic switching in vitro. Moreover, METTL14 could increase UCHL5 mRNA m6A level and promoted UCHL5 expression by recruiting YTHDF1. Moreover, UCHL5 overexpression enhanced protein stability by deubiquitinating NLRP3. Rescue studies revealed that NLRP3 overexpression abrogated UCHL5 silencing-mediated biological effects in ox-LDL-treated VSMCs. CONCLUSION UCHL5 modified by METTL14/YTHDF1 axis could facilitate the inflammation and vascular remodeling in atherosclerosis by activating the NLRP3 inflammasome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohu Yang
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Qingpu Branch of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201700, China
| | - Chen Wang
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Qingpu Branch of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201700, China
| | - Guanglang Zhu
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Qingpu Branch of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201700, China
| | - Zhenyu Guo
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Qingpu Branch of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201700, China
| | - Longhua Fan
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Qingpu Branch of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201700, China.
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5
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Wang S, Sun Y, Liu X, Guo Y, Huang Y, Zhang S, Tian Q. Meis1 Controls the Differentiation of Eye Progenitor Cells and the Formation of Posterior Poles during Planarian Regeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043505. [PMID: 36834910 PMCID: PMC9961902 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
As a member of TALE family, Meis1 has been proven to regulate cell proliferation and differentiation during cell fate commitment; however, the mechanism is still not fully understood. The planarian, which has an abundance of stem cells (neoblasts) responsible for regenerating any organ after injury, is an ideal model for studying the mechanisms of tissue identity determination. Here, we characterized a planarian homolog of Meis1 from the planarian Dugesia japonica. Importantly, we found that knockdown of DjMeis1 inhibits the differentiation of neoblasts into eye progenitor cells and results in an eyeless phenotype with normal central nervous system. Furthermore, we observed that DjMeis1 is required for the activation of Wnt signaling pathway by promoting the Djwnt1 expression during posterior regeneration. The silencing of DjMeis1 suppresses the expression of Djwnt1 and results in the inability to reconstruct posterior poles. In general, our findings indicated that DjMeis1 acts as a trigger for the activation of eye and tail regeneration by regulating the differentiation of eye progenitor cells and the formation of posterior poles, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaocong Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Yujia Sun
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Xiaomai Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Yajun Guo
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Yongding Huang
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Shoutao Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
- Longhu Laboratory of Advanced Immunology, Zhengzhou 450046, China
- Correspondence: (S.Z.); (Q.T.)
| | - Qingnan Tian
- School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
- Correspondence: (S.Z.); (Q.T.)
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RNA Modifications and Epigenetics in Modulation of Lung Cancer and Pulmonary Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910592. [PMID: 34638933 PMCID: PMC8508636 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 09/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide, and its tumorigenesis involves the accumulation of genetic and epigenetic events in the respiratory epithelium. Epigenetic modifications, such as DNA methylation, RNA modification, and histone modifications, have been widely reported to play an important role in lung cancer development and in other pulmonary diseases. Whereas the functionality of DNA and chromatin modifications referred to as epigenetics is widely characterized, various modifications of RNA nucleotides have recently come into prominence as functionally important. N6-methyladosine (m6A) is the most prevalent internal modification in mRNAs, and its machinery of writers, erasers, and readers is well-characterized. However, several other nucleotide modifications of mRNAs and various noncoding RNAs have also been shown to play an important role in the regulation of biological processes and pathology. Such epitranscriptomic modifications play an important role in regulating various aspects of RNA metabolism, including transcription, translation, splicing, and stability. The dysregulation of epitranscriptomic machinery has been implicated in the pathological processes associated with carcinogenesis including uncontrolled cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. In recent years, with the advancement of RNA sequencing technology, high-resolution maps of different modifications in various tissues, organs, or disease models are being constantly reported at a dramatic speed. This facilitates further understanding of the relationship between disease development and epitranscriptomics, shedding light on new therapeutic possibilities. In this review, we summarize the basic information on RNA modifications, including m6A, m1A, m5C, m7G, pseudouridine, and A-to-I editing. We then demonstrate their relation to different kinds of lung diseases, especially lung cancer. By comparing the different roles RNA modifications play in the development processes of different diseases, this review may provide some new insights and offer a better understanding of RNA epigenetics and its involvement in pulmonary diseases.
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Zhou W, Wang C, Chang J, Huang Y, Xue Q, Miao C, Wu P. RNA Methylations in Cardiovascular Diseases, Molecular Structure, Biological Functions and Regulatory Roles in Cardiovascular Diseases. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:722728. [PMID: 34489709 PMCID: PMC8417252 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.722728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the world. Despite considerable progress in the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of CVDs, new diagnostic biomarkers and new therapeutic measures are urgently needed to reduce the mortality of CVDs and improve the therapeutic effect. RNA methylations regulate almost all aspects of RNA processing, such as RNA nuclear export, translation, splicing and non-coding RNA processing. In view of the importance of RNA methylations in the pathogenesis of diseases, this work reviews the molecular structures, biological functions of five kinds of RNA methylations (m6A, m5C, m1a, m6am and m7G) and their effects on CVDs, including pulmonary hypertension, hypertension, vascular calcification, cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure. In CVDs, m6A “writers” catalyze the installation of m6A on RNAs, while “erasers” remove these modifications. Finally, the “readers” of m6A further influence the mRNA splicing, nuclear export, translation and degradation. M5C, m1A, m6Am and m7G are new types of RNA methylations, their roles in CVDs need to be further explored. RNA methylations have become a new research hotspot and the roles in CVDs is gradually emerging, the review of the molecular characteristics, biological functions and effects of RNA methylation on CVDs will contribute to the elucidation of the pathological mechanisms of CVDs and the discovery of new diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets of CVDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanwan Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Changhui Wang
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jun Chang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Yurong Huang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Qiuyun Xue
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Chenggui Miao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China.,Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Basis and Development of Modern Internal Medicine of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Peng Wu
- Department of Anatomy, School of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
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Yao M, Gu Y, Yang Z, Zhong K, Chen Z. MEIS1 and its potential as a cancer therapeutic target (Review). Int J Mol Med 2021; 48:181. [PMID: 34318904 PMCID: PMC8354308 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2021.5014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Meis homeobox 1 (Meis1) was initially discovered in 1995 as a factor involved in leukemia in an animal model. Subsequently, 2 years later, MEIS1, the human homolog, was cloned in the liver and cerebellum, and was found to be highly expressed in myeloid leukemia cells. The MEIS1 gene, located on chromosome 2p14, encodes a 390-amino acid protein with six domains. The expression of homeobox protein MEIS1 is affected by cell type, age and environmental conditions, as well as the pathological state. Certain types of modifications of MEIS1 and its protein interaction with homeobox or pre-B-cell leukemia homeobox proteins have been described. As a transcription factor, MEIS1 protein is involved in cell proliferation in leukemia and some solid tumors. The present review article discusses the molecular biology, modifications, protein-protein interactions, as well as the role of MEIS1 in cell proliferation of cancer cells and MEIS1 inhibitors. It is suggested by the available literature MEIS1 has potential to become a cancer therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maozhong Yao
- Clinical Research Center, Hainan Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Haikou, Hainan 570203, P.R. China
| | - Yong Gu
- Clinical Research Center, Hainan Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Haikou, Hainan 570203, P.R. China
| | - Zhaoxin Yang
- Teaching Experimental Animal Center, Research Center for Drug Safety Evaluation of Hainan Province, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan 571199, P.R. China
| | - Keyan Zhong
- Teaching Experimental Animal Center, Research Center for Drug Safety Evaluation of Hainan Province, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan 571199, P.R. China
| | - Zhanjuan Chen
- Chemical Experiment Teaching Center, College of Pharmacy, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan 571199, P.R. China
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Han F, Pang S, Sun Z, Cui Y, Yan B. Genetic Variants and Functional Analyses of the ATG16L1 Gene Promoter in Acute Myocardial Infarction. Front Genet 2021; 12:591954. [PMID: 34220924 PMCID: PMC8248370 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.591954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Acute myocardial infarction (AMI), a common complex disease caused by an interaction between genetic and environmental factors, is a serious type of coronary artery disease and is also a leading cause of death worldwide. Autophagy-related 16-like 1 (ATG16L1) is a key regulatory factor of autophagy and plays an important role in induced autophagy. In the cardiovascular system, autophagy is essential to preserve the homeostasis and function of the heart and blood vessels. No studies have hitherto examined the association between AMI and ATG16L1 gene promoter. Methods We conducted a case-control study, using polymerase chain reaction and sequencing techniques, dual luciferase reporter assay, and electrophoretic mobility shift assay, to analyze genetic and functional variation in the ATG16L1 gene promoter between AMI and controls. A variety of statistical analyses were used to analyze the allele and genotype frequencies and the relationship between single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and AMI. Results In all, 10 SNPs and two DNA-sequence variants (DSVs) were identified in 688 subjects, and three ATG16L1 gene promoter mutations [g.233250693 T > C (rs185213911), g.233250946 G > A (rs568956599), g.233251133 C > G (rs1301744254)] that were identified in AMI patients significantly altered the transcriptional activity of ATG16L1 gene promoter in HEH2, HEK-293, and H9c2 cells (P < 0.05). Further electrophoretic mobility shift assays indicated that the SNPs affected the binding of transcription factors (P < 0.01). Conclusion ATG16L1 gene promoter mutations in AMI patients may affect the binding of transcription factors and change the transcriptional activity of the ATG16L1 gene, changing the level of autophagy and contributing to the occurrence and development of AMI as rare and low-frequency risk factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Falan Han
- Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Shuchao Pang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cardiac Disease Diagnosis and Treatment, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Zhaoqing Sun
- Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yinghua Cui
- Division of Cardiology, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
| | - Bo Yan
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cardiac Disease Diagnosis and Treatment, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining Medical University, Jining, China.,The Center for Molecular Genetics of Cardiovascular Diseases, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining Medical University, Jining, China.,Shandong Provincial Sino-US Cooperation Research Center for Translational Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining Medical University, Jining, China
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Gottschalk G, Knox K, Roy A. ACE2: At the crossroad of COVID-19 and lung cancer. GENE REPORTS 2021; 23:101077. [PMID: 33723522 PMCID: PMC7946539 DOI: 10.1016/j.genrep.2021.101077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Upregulation of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-2 (ACE2) was frequently observed in patients with lung cancer. Interestingly, our recent study revealed that the same ACE2 receptor was also strongly upregulated in lungs during SARS-CoV2 infection. Therefore, it is possible that the upregulated expression of ACE2 in lung tumors might increase the susceptibility to COVID-19 infection in lung cancer patients. However, the molecular mechanism for the regulation of ACE2 is known neither in lung tumors nor in COVID-19. Under this review, we attempt to identify transcription factors (TFs) in the promoter of ACE2 that promote the expression of ACE2 both in COVID-19 infection and lung cancer. This review would decipher the molecular role of ACE2 in the upscaled fatality of lung cancer patients suffering from COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunnar Gottschalk
- Technology Innovation Center, 10437 W Innovation Drive, Suite # 325, Wauwatosa, WI 53226, United States of America
| | - Konstance Knox
- Coppe Laboratories, W229N1870 Westwood Dr, Waukesha, WI 53186, United States of America
| | - Avik Roy
- Technology Innovation Center, 10437 W Innovation Drive, Suite # 325, Wauwatosa, WI 53226, United States of America
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