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Gašparová K, Fennessy J, Moussa Zabeirou AR, Abagana AL, Rabeil T, Brandlová K. Saving the Last West African Giraffe Population: A Review of Its Conservation Status and Management. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:702. [PMID: 38473087 DOI: 10.3390/ani14050702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The West African giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis peralta) was historically spread across much of the Sudano-Sahelian zone but is now restricted to Niger. Several factors resulted in their dramatic decline during the late 20th century. In 1996, only 49 individuals remained, concentrated in the 'Giraffe Zone'. Conservation activities implemented by the Government of Niger, supported by local communities and NGOs, facilitated their population numbers to increase. This review summarizes past and present conservation activities and evaluates their impact to advise and prioritize future conservation actions for the West African giraffe. The long-term conservation of the West African giraffe is highly dependent on the local communities who live alongside them, as well as supplementary support from local and international partners. Recent conservation initiatives range from community-based monitoring to the fitting of GPS satellite tags to better understand their habitat use, spatial movements to expansion areas, and environmental education to the establishment of the first satellite population of West African giraffe in Gadabedji Biosphere Reserve, the latter serving as a flagship for the future restoration of large mammal populations in West Africa. The integration of modern technologies and methods will hopefully provide better-quality data, improved spatial analyses, and greater understanding of giraffe ecology to inform the long-term management of West African giraffe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateřina Gašparová
- Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Julian Fennessy
- Giraffe Conservation Foundation, Windhoek 10009, Namibia
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Abdoul Razack Moussa Zabeirou
- Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
- Giraffe Conservation Foundation, Windhoek 10009, Namibia
| | - Ali Laouel Abagana
- Project Sustainable Management of Biodiversity, Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development, Niamey 920001, Niger
| | - Thomas Rabeil
- Wild Africa Conservation, Kouara Kano, BP32, Niamey 920001, Niger
| | - Karolína Brandlová
- Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
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Newman BA, D’Angelo GJ. A Review of Cervidae Visual Ecology. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:420. [PMID: 38338063 PMCID: PMC10854973 DOI: 10.3390/ani14030420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
This review examines the visual systems of cervids in relation to their ability to meet their ecological needs and how their visual systems are specialized for particular tasks. Cervidae encompasses a diverse group of mammals that serve as important ecological drivers within their ecosystems. Despite evidence of highly specialized visual systems, a large portion of cervid research ignores or fails to consider the realities of cervid vision as it relates to their ecology. Failure to account for an animal's visual ecology during research can lead to unintentional biases and uninformed conclusions regarding the decision making and behaviors for a species or population. Our review addresses core behaviors and their interrelationship with cervid visual characteristics. Historically, the study of cervid visual characteristics has been restricted to specific areas of inquiry such as color vision and contains limited integration into broader ecological and behavioral research. The purpose of our review is to bridge these gaps by offering a comprehensive review of cervid visual ecology that emphasizes the interplay between the visual adaptations of cervids and their interactions with habitats and other species. Ultimately, a better understanding of cervid visual ecology allows researchers to gain deeper insights into their behavior and ecology, providing critical information for conservation and management efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blaise A. Newman
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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Peterson CJ, DeCesare NJ, Hayes TA, Bishop CJ, Mitchell MS. Consequences of migratory strategy on habitat selection by mule deer. J Wildl Manage 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.22135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Collin J. Peterson
- Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Wildlife Biology Program University of Montana Missoula 59812 MT USA
| | - Nicholas J. DeCesare
- Montana Department of Fish Wildlife, and Parks 3201 Spurgin Road Missoula 59804 MT USA
| | - Teagan A. Hayes
- Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Wildlife Biology Program University of Montana Missoula 59812 MT USA
| | - Chad J. Bishop
- Wildlife Biology Program University of Montana Missoula 59812 MT USA
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Anderwald P, Campell Andri S, Palme R. Reflections of ecological differences? Stress responses of sympatric Alpine chamois and red deer to weather, forage quality, and human disturbance. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:15740-15753. [PMID: 34824786 PMCID: PMC8601901 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Depending on the habitats they live in, temperate ungulates have adapted to different degrees to seasonally changing forage and weather conditions, and to specific escape strategies from predators. Alpine chamois, a mountain ungulate, and red deer, originally adapted to open plains, would therefore be expected to differ in their physiological responses to potential stressors. Based on 742 chamois and 1557 red deer fecal samples collected year-round every 2 weeks for 4 years at the same locations within a strictly protected area in the Swiss Alps, we analyzed glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations for both species. Results from linear mixed effects models revealed no physiological stress response to changing visitor numbers, but instead to drought conditions for both species during summer. In winter, FGM concentrations increased with increasing snow height in both species, but this response was modulated by temperature in red deer. Chamois showed a stronger stress response to increasing snow height during November and December than between January and March, while FGM concentrations increased with decreasing temperature throughout winter. An increase in FGM concentrations with decreasing forage digestibility during winter was found only for red deer. The results are thus partly in contradiction to expectations based on feeding type and adaptations to different habitats between the two species. The lack of a response to forage digestibility in chamois may reflect either better adaptation to difficult feeding conditions in subalpine forests, or, by contrast, strong constraints imposed by forage quality. The similar responses of both species to weather conditions in winter suggest that climatic factors at the elevations examined here are sufficiently harsh to be limiting to temperate ungulates regardless of their specific adaptations to this environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Anderwald
- Swiss National ParkChastè Planta‐WildenbergZernezSwitzerland
| | | | - Rupert Palme
- Department of Biomedical Sciences/BiochemistryUniversity of Veterinary MedicineViennaAustria
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van de Kerk M, Larsen RT, Olson DD, Hersey KR, McMillan BR. Variation in movement patterns of mule deer: have we oversimplified migration? MOVEMENT ECOLOGY 2021; 9:44. [PMID: 34446100 PMCID: PMC8394567 DOI: 10.1186/s40462-021-00281-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Conservation and management of migratory animals has gained attention in recent years, but the majority of research has focused on stereotypical 'migrant' and 'resident' behaviors, often failing to incorporate any atypical behaviors or characterize migratory behaviors beyond distance and timing of the migration. With migration threatened by anthropogenic development and climate change, it is crucial that we understand the full range of migratory behaviors. Our objective was to demonstrate and characterize the variation in migration strategies, including typical and atypical migratory behaviors for mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in Utah, USA. METHODS Because calculation of common metrics such as distance, timing, and use of stopovers during migration did not adequately describe the variation we observed in migratory behavior for this species-particularly when animals visited multiple (> 3) ranges for extended lengths of time-we developed additional methods and categories to describe observed variation in migratory behavior. We first categorized trajectories based on the number of discrete, separate ranges and range shifts between them. Then, we further characterized the variation in migration strategies by examining the timing, duration, and distance traveled within each of the categories. We also examined if and how frequently individual deer switched among categories from year to year. RESULTS We classified 1218 movement trajectories from 722 adult female mule deer, and found that 54.4% were dual-range migrants, who made one round-trip to one distinct range. Multi-range migrants (23.6%) made one round-trip during which they stayed at multiple discrete ranges. Commuters (1.0%) traveled to the same range multiple times, and poly migrants (1.5%) made multiple round-trips to different ranges. Gradual movers (2.5%) did not show a discrete range shift but moved gradually between ranges, whereas residents (12.6%) never left their home ranges, and dispersers (4.4%) left but never returned. Of the deer that we monitored for multiple years, 51.2% switched among categories. CONCLUSION We conclude that the substantial number of atypical migratory strategies, as well as the number of deer that switched categories, underlines the importance of studying these less-stereotyped behaviors that may be exhibited by large proportions of populations. Acknowledging and investigating the full complexity and diversity in migratory strategies might uncover unknowns with respect to underlying factors and drivers of migration, and can help shape effective conservation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madelon van de Kerk
- Department of Plant and Wildlife Sciences, Brigham Young University, 4105 Life Sciences Building, Provo, UT, 84602, USA.
- School of Environment and Sustainability, Western Colorado University, Kelley Hall 144, Gunnison, CO, 81231, USA.
| | - Randy T Larsen
- Department of Plant and Wildlife Sciences, Brigham Young University, 4105 Life Sciences Building, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - Daniel D Olson
- Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, 1594 W North Temple, Suite 2110, Salt Lake City, UT, 84114, USA
| | - Kent R Hersey
- Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, 1594 W North Temple, Suite 2110, Salt Lake City, UT, 84114, USA
| | - Brock R McMillan
- Department of Plant and Wildlife Sciences, Brigham Young University, 4105 Life Sciences Building, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
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Rheault H, Anderson CR, Bonar M, Marrotte RR, Ross TR, Wittemyer G, Northrup JM. Some Memories Never Fade: Inferring Multi-Scale Memory Effects on Habitat Selection of a Migratory Ungulate Using Step-Selection Functions. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.702818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how animals use information about their environment to make movement decisions underpins our ability to explain drivers of and predict animal movement. Memory is the cognitive process that allows species to store information about experienced landscapes, however, remains an understudied topic in movement ecology. By studying how species select for familiar locations, visited recently and in the past, we can gain insight to how they store and use local information in multiple memory types. In this study, we analyzed the movements of a migratory mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) population in the Piceance Basin of Colorado, United States to investigate the influence of spatial experience over different time scales on seasonal range habitat selection. We inferred the influence of short and long-term memory from the contribution to habitat selection of previous space use within the same season and during the prior year, respectively. We fit step-selection functions to GPS collar data from 32 female deer and tested the predictive ability of covariates representing current environmental conditions and both metrics of previous space use on habitat selection, inferring the latter as the influence of memory within and between seasons (summer vs. winter). Across individuals, models incorporating covariates representing both recent and past experience and environmental covariates performed best. In the top model, locations that had been previously visited within the same season and locations from previous seasons were more strongly selected relative to environmental covariates, which we interpret as evidence for the strong influence of both short- and long-term memory in driving seasonal range habitat selection. Further, the influence of previous space uses was stronger in the summer relative to winter, which is when deer in this population demonstrated strongest philopatry to their range. Our results suggest that mule deer update their seasonal range cognitive map in real time and retain long-term information about seasonal ranges, which supports the existing theory that memory is a mechanism leading to emergent space-use patterns such as site fidelity. Lastly, these findings provide novel insight into how species store and use information over different time scales.
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Chisholm JD, Hodder DP, Crowley SM, Rea RV, Marshall S. Seasonal movements of migratory and resident female moose (Alces alces) in north-central British Columbia, Canada. MAMMAL RES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13364-021-00575-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Abrahms B, Aikens EO, Armstrong JB, Deacy WW, Kauffman MJ, Merkle JA. Emerging Perspectives on Resource Tracking and Animal Movement Ecology. Trends Ecol Evol 2021; 36:308-320. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2020.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Rodgers PA, Sawyer H, Mong TW, Stephens S, Kauffman MJ. Sex‐specific migratory behaviors in a temperate ungulate. Ecosphere 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick A. Rodgers
- Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit Department of Zoology and Physiology University of Wyoming Laramie Wyoming82071USA
| | - Hall Sawyer
- Western Ecosystems Technology, Inc. 1610 Reynolds Street Laramie Wyoming82072USA
| | - Tony W. Mong
- Wyoming Game and Fish Department Cody Regional Office 2820 State Highway 120 Cody Wyoming82414USA
| | - Sam Stephens
- Wyoming Game and Fish Department Cheyenne Wyoming82009USA
| | - Matthew J. Kauffman
- U.S. Geological Survey Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit Department of Zoology and Physiology University of Wyoming Laramie Wyoming82071USA
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Northrup JM, Anderson CR, Gerber BD, Wittemyer G. Behavioral and Demographic Responses of Mule Deer to Energy Development on Winter Range. WILDLIFE MONOGRAPHS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/wmon.1060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M. Northrup
- Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology Colorado State University 1474 Campus Delivery Fort Collins CO 80523 USA
- ; and Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry 2140 East Bank Drive Peterborough ON K9L 1Z8 Canada
| | - Charles R. Anderson
- Mammals Research Section Colorado Parks and Wildlife 317 W Prospect Road Fort Collins CO 80526 USA
| | - Brian D. Gerber
- Department of Natural Resources Science University of Rhode Island 1 Greenhouse Road Kingston RI 02881‐2018 USA
| | - George Wittemyer
- Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology Colorado State University 1474 Campus Delivery Fort Collins CO 80523 USA
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Comparative Quality and Trend of Remotely Sensed Phenology and Productivity Metrics across the Western United States. REMOTE SENSING 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/rs12162538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Vegetation phenology and productivity play a crucial role in surface energy balance, plant and animal distribution, and animal movement and habitat use and can be measured with remote sensing metrics including start of season (SOS), peak instantaneous rate of green-up date (PIRGd), peak of season (POS), end of season (EOS), and integrated vegetation indices. However, for most metrics, we do not yet understand the agreement of remotely sensed data products with near-surface observations. We also need summaries of changes over time, spatial distribution, variability, and consistency in remote sensing dataset metrics for vegetation timing and quality. We compare metrics from 10 leading remote sensing datasets against a network of PhenoCam near-surface cameras throughout the western United States from 2002 to 2014. Most phenology metrics representing a date (SOS, PIRGd, POS, and EOS), rather than a duration (length of spring, length of growing season), better agreed with near-surface metrics but results varied by dataset, metric, and land cover, with absolute value of mean bias ranging from 0.38 (PIRGd) to 37.92 days (EOS). Datasets had higher agreement with PhenoCam metrics in shrublands, grasslands, and deciduous forests than in evergreen forests. Phenology metrics had higher agreement than productivity metrics, aside from a few datasets in deciduous forests. Using two datasets covering the period 1982–2016 that best agreed with PhenoCam metrics, we analyzed changes over time to growing seasons. Both datasets exhibited substantial spatial heterogeneity in the direction of phenology trends. Variability of metrics increased over time in some areas, particularly in the Southwest. Approximately 60% of pixels had consistent trend direction between datasets for SOS, POS, and EOS, with the direction varying by location. In all ecoregions except Mediterranean California, EOS has become later. This study comprehensively compares remote sensing datasets across multiple growing season metrics and discusses considerations for applied users to inform their data choices.
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Balčiauskas L, Wierzchowski J, Kučas A, Balčiauskienė L. Habitat Suitability Based Models for Ungulate Roadkill Prognosis. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10081345. [PMID: 32759755 PMCID: PMC7460423 DOI: 10.3390/ani10081345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Red deer, roe deer and wild boar movements and crossings of the two highways in Lithuania were modeled. Validity of obtained models was tested by comparing the pathway predictions to the real roadkill and roadkill cluster locations in 2002–2009 (at the time the models were created) and in 2010–2017 (testing the prognostic value of these models). Across both periods and on both highways, the roe deer roadkill locations were significantly closer to the model-predicted pathways than to randomly selected points. The prediction of roadkill locations was also good for wild boar. The roe deer roadkill clusters and multi-species clusters were significantly better represented by the model than by random distribution. Thus, habitat suitability-based models of ungulate movement are recommended as an additional tool for planning wildlife-vehicle collision mitigation measures. Abstract Roads do not only have a detrimental effect on nature (fragmenting habitats, isolating populations and threatening biodiversity), but the increasing numbers of wildlife-vehicle collisions are also a direct threat to humans and property. Therefore, mitigation measures should be placed with respect to animal distribution and movements across the roads. We simulated red deer, roe deer and wild boar movements in Lithuania, focusing on the two main highways A1 and A2. Using regional habitat suitability and linkage models, we calculated movement pathways and the most probable crossing zones in 2009. The prognostic value of these models was tested by comparing the pathway predictions to the real roadkill and roadkill cluster locations in 2002–2009 and 2010–2017. Across both periods and on both highways, the roe deer roadkill locations were significantly closer to the model-predicted pathways than to randomly selected points. The prediction of roadkill locations was also good for wild boar. The roe deer roadkill clusters and multi-species clusters were significantly better represented by the model than by random distribution. On both highways, the biggest differences in distance from the predicted locations were near big cities. We recommended wildlife movement models as an additional tool for planning wildlife-vehicle collision mitigation measures and we advise measures for increasing their predicting power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linas Balčiauskas
- Laboratory of Mammalian Ecology, Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, 08412 Vilnius, Lithuania; (A.K.); (L.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +370-685-34141
| | | | - Andrius Kučas
- Laboratory of Mammalian Ecology, Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, 08412 Vilnius, Lithuania; (A.K.); (L.B.)
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Via E. Fermi 2749, I-21027 Ispra, Italy
| | - Laima Balčiauskienė
- Laboratory of Mammalian Ecology, Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, 08412 Vilnius, Lithuania; (A.K.); (L.B.)
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Flores CE, Bellis LM, Adrián S. Modelling the abundance and productivity distribution to understand the habitat–species relationship: the guanaco (Lama guanicoe) case study. WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2020. [DOI: 10.1071/wr19114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
ContextThe conservation of large wild herbivores presents a challenge posed by the fact that their broad habitat requirements overlap with various human activities. Elucidating the factors that explain their distribution patterns provides us with a better understanding of habitat–species relationships and facilitates the design of effective management policies.
AimsIdentify the natural (forage availability, weather) and anthropogenic (hunting, interspecific competition) factors that explain the abundance and productivity distribution of the guanaco. Estimate guanaco abundance and productivity and describe their distribution.
MethodsWe estimated the abundance and productivity of guanaco by using aerial surveys during the breeding and non-breeding season of two consecutive years, following the strip-transect methodology; we then modelled these as a function of environmental factors by means of density surface models.
Key resultsThe highest abundance and productivity of guanaco occurred mostly where mesic grassland was dominant. Guanaco abundance presented three hotspots on the basis of geographic location, and family groups were more productive at low to intermediate livestock level. Abundance was significantly higher in the breeding season for both years (5614 and 14092 individuals) than in the non-breeding season (2922 and 6926 individuals), and it was higher in 2015 than in 2014. Productivity was higher in 2015 than in 2014 (0.54 and 0.46 calves per adult respectively).
ConclusionsGuanaco responded to forage availability, occupying zones with low to intermediate food availability in the breeding season, and those with the highest availability in the non-breeding season. This could be due to interspecific competition between livestock and guanaco family groups. We propose that the overall guanaco response could also be explained by social structure or by unassessed factors such as predation risk by feral dogs.
ImplicationsThe guanaco could compensate for the use of habitats with a lower food availability during the breeding season by using better-quality habitats during the non-breeding season.
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Hennig JD, Scasta JD, Beck JL, Schoenecker KA, King SRB. Systematic review of equids and telemetry collars: implications for deployment and reporting. WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2020. [DOI: 10.1071/wr19229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Data from animals equipped with global positioning system collars have advanced our understanding of vertebrates, but this technology has rarely been employed to study feral equids. Hesitation to equip feral equids with telemetry collars in the USA can often be attributed to safety concerns stemming from one study from the 1980s, where injuries were sustained by feral horses (Equus ferus caballus) equipped with radio-collars. Improvements in collar design over the ensuing quarter-century may have decreased risk of collar-related complications; however, telemetry-based studies on feral equids continue to be limited. In the present review, studies from wild and feral equids worldwide were systematically reviewed to better understand the mortality and injury risk in application of telemetry collars to equids. Our goals were to: (1) report the number of individual equids fitted with telemetry collars (1979–2017); and (2) document the number of individual equids that reportedly died or suffered injuries from collars or other sources. A comparative review of elk (Cervus canadensis), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) was also conducted to evaluate the relative risk of collar-related complications among equids and routinely collared North American ungulates. In total, 1089 wild and feral telemetered equids were identified across 48 studies. Of these, 87 (8.0%) were reported to have died, with only one (0.09%) mortality attributable to a collar. Comparatively, 23.0% (1095) of 4761 elk, mule deer and pronghorn fitted with telemetry collars were found to have died in the same number of studies, though no mortalities were reported to be related to the collar. Although wild and feral equids did not experience increased natural mortality compared with the other ungulates, studies have not provided sufficient information to assess relative risk of collar-related complications. Explicit reporting and discussion of telemetry collar impacts in future publications of all animal species are recommended, especially equids, to improve understanding of how telemetry collars can affect study individuals.
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Gogan PJP, Klaver RW, Olexa EM. Northern Yellowstone Mule Deer Seasonal Movement, Habitat Selection, and Survival Patterns. WEST N AM NATURALIST 2019. [DOI: 10.3398/064.079.0310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. P. Gogan
- U.S. Geological Survey, Fort Collins Science Center, Fort Collins, CO 80526
| | - Robert W. Klaver
- U.S. Geological Survey, Iowa Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011
| | - Edward M. Olexa
- U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, Bozeman, MT 59715
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Sawyer H, Beckmann JP, Seidler RG, Berger J. Long‐term effects of energy development on winter distribution and residency of pronghorn in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hall Sawyer
- Western Ecosystems Technology, Inc. Laramie Wyoming
| | - Jon P. Beckmann
- Wildlife Conservation Society, North America Program Bozeman Montana
| | - Renee G. Seidler
- Wildlife Conservation Society, North America Program Bozeman Montana
| | - Joel Berger
- Wildlife Conservation Society, North America Program Bozeman Montana
- Fisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation BiologyColorado State University Fort Collins Colorado
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Lowrey C, Longshore KM, Choate DM, Nagol JR, Sexton J, Thompson D. Ecological effects of fear: How spatiotemporal heterogeneity in predation risk influences mule deer access to forage in a sky-island system. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:7213-7226. [PMID: 31380044 PMCID: PMC6662283 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Forage availability and predation risk interact to affect habitat use of ungulates across many biomes. Within sky-island habitats of the Mojave Desert, increased availability of diverse forage and cover may provide ungulates with unique opportunities to extend nutrient uptake and/or to mitigate predation risk. We addressed whether habitat use and foraging patterns of female mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) responded to normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), NDVI rate of change (green-up), or the occurrence of cougars (Puma concolor). Female mule deer used available green-up primarily in spring, although growing vegetation was available during other seasons. Mule deer and cougar shared similar habitat all year, and our models indicated cougars had a consistent, negative effect on mule deer access to growing vegetation, particularly in summer when cougar occurrence became concentrated at higher elevations. A seemingly late parturition date coincided with diminishing NDVI during the lactation period. Sky-island populations, rarely studied, provide the opportunity to determine how mule deer respond to growing foliage along steep elevation and vegetation gradients when trapped with their predators and seasonally limited by aridity. Our findings indicate that fear of predation may restrict access to the forage resources found in sky islands.
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Debeffe L, Rivrud IM, Meisingset EL, Mysterud A. Sex-specific differences in spring and autumn migration in a northern large herbivore. Sci Rep 2019; 9:6137. [PMID: 30992511 PMCID: PMC6468013 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42639-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Ongoing global warming is now affecting migratory cycles in a large variety of taxa in seasonally variable environments. Disruption of migratory systems can cause population decline and affect ecosystem function across the globe. It is therefore urgent to understand the drivers of migration and how the different fitness limitations of the sexes affect migration, but studies seldom considered the full annual cycle. We analysed the annual migration cycle of 237 red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Norway and investigate how different seasonal limitations affected the variation in a suite of migration characteristics. We found fundamental differences in migration phenology between seasons, and migratory traits were much more variable in males. Spring migratory movements were characterized by longer distance roamed, lower speed, lasted longer, more frequent use of stopovers, timing was more synchronized and coincided with onset of plant growth, and with higher daily activity levels. Timing of autumn migration was more variable and not closely related to cease of plant growth. Our study emphasizes the benefits of studying the full annual cycle to gain further insight into the migration process, and how understanding the limitations of the full annual migration process of both sexes is critical for conservation purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Debeffe
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, NO-0316, Oslo, Norway.
- CEFS, Université de Toulouse, INRA, 31326, Castanet-Tolosan, France.
| | - Inger Maren Rivrud
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, NO-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Erling L Meisingset
- Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Department of Forestry and Forestry resources, NO-6630, Tingvoll, Norway
| | - Atle Mysterud
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, NO-0316, Oslo, Norway
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19
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Smedley DC, van de Kerk M, McMillan BR, Hersey KR, Whiting JC, Larsen RT. Movements, space use and site fidelity of translocated and resident mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2019. [DOI: 10.1071/wr19043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
ContextTranslocation of wildlife has become common practice for wildlife managers charged with management of animals on increasingly modified landscapes. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) is a species of great interest to the public in western North America, and individuals of this species have been translocated several times, but little has been done to document the outcomes of those translocations.
AimOur objective was to evaluate the movement, space use and site fidelity of translocated female mule deer in comparison with resident female deer in Utah, USA.
MethodsIn January and March 2013, 102 translocated and 50 resident female mule deer were captured and fitted with radio-transmitters. Movement distances, home range sizes and seasonal range sizes were compared, as well as site fidelity between translocated and resident deer.
Key resultsMean distance moved and mean annual home range size were significantly larger for translocated than resident deer in 2013, but not in 2014. Translocated deer demonstrated high site fidelity to their release areas. In total, 75% of surviving deer returned during the fall (September–November) migration to winter range within 7km of release sites.
ConclusionsOur results indicate that home range sizes and movements of translocated deer are larger than those of resident deer during the first year after release, but during the second year after release, home range sizes and movements of translocated deer are similar to those of resident deer.
ImplicationsThe similar home range sizes and movements of translocated and resident deer >1 year after release, as well as the high site fidelity we observed, suggests that translocation is a strategy managers could use to establish or augment populations of mule deer on winter range.
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20
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Monteith KL, Hayes MM, Kauffman MJ, Copeland HE, Sawyer H. Functional attributes of ungulate migration: landscape features facilitate movement and access to forage. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2018; 28:2153-2164. [PMID: 30329189 DOI: 10.1002/eap.1803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Long-distance migration by terrestrial mammals is a phenomenon critical to the persistence of populations, but such migrations are declining globally because of over-harvest, habitat loss, and movement barriers. Increasingly, there is a need to improve existing routes, mitigate route segments affected by anthropogenic disturbance, and in some instances, determine whether alternative routes are available. Using a hypothesis-driven approach, we identified landscape features associated with the primary functional attributes, stopovers and movement corridors, of spring migratory routes for mule deer in two study areas using resource selection functions. Patterns of selection for landscape attributes of movement corridors and stopovers mostly were similar; however, landscape features associated with movement corridors aligned better with areas that facilitated movement, whereas selection of stopovers was consistent with sites offering early access to spring forage. For movement corridors, deer selected for dry sites, low elevation, and low anthropogenic disturbance. For stopovers, deer selected for dry sites, with consistently early green-up across years, south-southwesterly aspects, low elevation, and low anthropogenic disturbance. Stopovers and movement corridors of a migratory route presumably promote different functions, but for a terrestrial migrant, patterns of habitat selection indicate that the same general habitat attributes may facilitate both movement and foraging in spring. Our findings emphasize the roles of topographical wetness, vegetation phenology, and anthropogenic disturbance in shaping use of the landscape during migration for this large herbivore. Avoiding human disturbance and tracking ephemeral forage resources appear to be a consistent pattern during migration, which reinforces the notion that movement during migration has a nutritional underpinning and disturbance potentially alters the net benefits of migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin L Monteith
- Haub School of Environment and Natural Resources, Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, 804 E. Fremont Street, Laramie, Wyoming, 82072, USA
| | - Matthew M Hayes
- Haub School of Environment and Natural Resources, Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, 804 E. Fremont Street, Laramie, Wyoming, 82072, USA
| | - Matthew J Kauffman
- U.S. Geological Survey, Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Zoology and Physiology, Department 3166, University of Wyoming, 1000 East University Avenue, Laramie, Wyoming, 82071, USA
| | - Holly E Copeland
- The Nature Conservancy, 258 Main Street, Lander, Wyoming, 82520, USA
| | - Hall Sawyer
- Western Ecosystems Technology, Inc., 200 South 2nd Street, Laramie, Wyoming, 82070, USA
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21
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Schuyler EM, Dugger KM, Jackson DH. Effects of distribution, behavior, and climate on mule deer survival. J Wildl Manage 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth M. Schuyler
- Oregon Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit; Department of Fisheries and Wildlife; Oregon State University; Corvallis OR 97330 USA
| | - Katie M. Dugger
- U.S. Geological Survey; Oregon Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit; Department of Fisheries and Wildlife; Oregon State University; Corvallis OR 97330 USA
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22
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Lendrum PE. Opportunistic Foraging Behavior By Coyotes ( Canis latrans) of A Novel Food Source Observed With Remote Cameras. SOUTHWEST NAT 2018. [DOI: 10.1894/0038-4909-62.4.308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick E. Lendrum
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Campus Delivery 1474, Fort Collins, CO 80523
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23
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Spatial abundance models and seasonal distribution for guanaco (Lama guanicoe) in central Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0197814. [PMID: 29782523 PMCID: PMC5962061 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Spatially explicit modelling allows to estimate population abundance and predict species’ distribution in relation to environmental factors. Abiotic factors are the main determinants of a herbivore´s response to environmental heterogeneity on large spatiotemporal scales. We assessed the influence of elevation, geographic location and distance to the coast on the seasonal abundance and distribution of guanaco (Lama guanicoe) in central Tierra del Fuego, by means of spatially explicit modelling. The estimated abundance was 23,690 individuals for the non-breeding season and 33,928 individuals for the breeding season. The factors influencing distribution and abundance revealed to be the elevation for the non-breeding season, and the distance to the coast and geographic location for the breeding season. The southwest of the study area presented seasonal abundance variation and the southeast and northeast presented high abundance during both seasons. The elevation would be the driving factor of guanaco distribution, as individuals move to lower areas during the non-breeding season and ascend to high areas during the breeding season. Our results confirm that part of the guanaco population performs seasonal migratory movements and that the main valleys present important wintering habitats for guanacos as well as up-hill zones during summer. This type of study would help to avoid problems of scale mismatch and achieve better results in management actions and is an example of how to assess important seasonal habitats from evaluations of abundance and distribution patterns.
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24
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Peterson ME, Anderson CR, Northrup JM, Doherty PF. Mortality of mule deer fawns in a natural gas development area. J Wildl Manage 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mark E. Peterson
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology; Colorado State University; 1474 Campus Delivery Fort Collins CO 80523 USA
| | - Charles R. Anderson
- Mammals Research Section; Colorado Parks and Wildlife; 317 W. Prospect Road Fort Collins CO 80526 USA
| | - Joseph M. Northrup
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology; Colorado State University; 1474 Campus Delivery Fort Collins CO 80523 USA
| | - Paul F. Doherty
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology; Colorado State University; 1474 Campus Delivery Fort Collins CO 80523 USA
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25
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Couriot O, Hewison AJM, Saïd S, Cagnacci F, Chamaillé-Jammes S, Linnell JDC, Mysterud A, Peters W, Urbano F, Heurich M, Kjellander P, Nicoloso S, Berger A, Sustr P, Kroeschel M, Soennichsen L, Sandfort R, Gehr B, Morellet N. Truly sedentary? The multi-range tactic as a response to resource heterogeneity and unpredictability in a large herbivore. Oecologia 2018; 187:47-60. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-018-4131-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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26
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Oster KW, Barboza PS, Gustine DD, Joly K, Shively RD. Mineral constraints on arctic caribou (
Rangifer tarandus
): a spatial and phenological perspective. Ecosphere 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- K. W. Oster
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Texas A&M University College Station Texas 77843 USA
| | - P. S. Barboza
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Texas A&M University College Station Texas 77843 USA
| | - D. D. Gustine
- Alaska Science Center U.S. Geological Survey 4210 University Drive Anchorage Alaska 99508 USA
| | - K. Joly
- National Park Sejrvice Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve Fairbanks Alaska 99709 USA
| | - R. D. Shively
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Texas A&M University College Station Texas 77843 USA
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27
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Wyckoff TB, Sawyer H, Albeke SE, Garman SL, Kauffman MJ. Evaluating the influence of energy and residential development on the migratory behavior of mule deer. Ecosphere 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Teal B. Wyckoff
- Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit Department of Zoology and Physiology University of Wyoming Laramie Wyoming 82071 USA
- Wyoming Geographic Information Science Center University of Wyoming Laramie Wyoming 82071 USA
| | - Hall Sawyer
- Western Ecosystems Technology, Inc. 200 South 2nd Street Laramie Wyoming 82070 USA
| | - Shannon E. Albeke
- Wyoming Geographic Information Science Center University of Wyoming Laramie Wyoming 82071 USA
| | - Steven L. Garman
- Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center U.S. Geological Survey Lakewood Colorado 80225 USA
| | - Matthew J. Kauffman
- U.S. Geological Survey Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit Department of Zoology and Physiology University of Wyoming Laramie Wyoming 82071 USA
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28
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Middleton AD, Merkle JA, McWhirter DE, Cook JG, Cook RC, White PJ, Kauffman MJ. Green-wave surfing increases fat gain in a migratory ungulate. OIKOS 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.05227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Arthur D. Middleton
- Dept of Environmental Science, Policy and Management; Univ. of California; Berkeley CA 94720 USA
| | - Jerod A. Merkle
- Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Dept of Zoology and Physiology; Univ. of Wyoming; Laramie WY USA
| | | | - John G. Cook
- National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Forestry and Range Sciences Laboratory; La Grande OR USA
| | - Rachel C. Cook
- National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Forestry and Range Sciences Laboratory; La Grande OR USA
| | - P. J. White
- National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park; WY USA
| | - Matthew J. Kauffman
- US Geological Survey, Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Dept of Zoology and Physiology; Univ. of Wyoming; Laramie WY USA
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29
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Lendrum PE, Crooks KR, Wittemyer G. Changes in circadian activity patterns of a wildlife community post high-intensity energy development. J Mammal 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyx097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
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30
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Using NDVI and EVI to Map Spatiotemporal Variation in the Biomass and Quality of Forage for Migratory Elk in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. REMOTE SENSING 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/rs8050404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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31
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DeVoe JD, Garrott RA, Rotella JJ, Challender SR, White PJ, O'Reilly M, Butler CJ. Summer range occupancy modeling of non-native mountain goats in the greater Yellowstone area. Ecosphere 2015. [DOI: 10.1890/es15-00273.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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32
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Searle KR, Rice MB, Anderson CR, Bishop C, Hobbs NT. Asynchronous vegetation phenology enhances winter body condition of a large mobile herbivore. Oecologia 2015; 179:377-91. [PMID: 26009244 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-015-3348-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Accepted: 05/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how spatial and temporal heterogeneity influence ecological processes forms a central challenge in ecology. Individual responses to heterogeneity shape population dynamics, therefore understanding these responses is central to sustainable population management. Emerging evidence has shown that herbivores track heterogeneity in nutritional quality of vegetation by responding to phenological differences in plants. We quantified the benefits mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) accrue from accessing habitats with asynchronous plant phenology in northwest Colorado over 3 years. Our analysis examined both the direct physiological and indirect environmental effects of weather and vegetation phenology on mule deer winter body condition. We identified several important effects of annual weather patterns and topographical variables on vegetation phenology in the home ranges of mule deer. Crucially, temporal patterns of vegetation phenology were linked with differences in body condition, with deer tending to show poorer body condition in areas with less asynchronous vegetation green-up and later vegetation onset. The direct physiological effect of previous winter precipitation on mule deer body condition was much less important than the indirect effect mediated by vegetation phenology. Additionally, the influence of vegetation phenology on body fat was much stronger than that of overall vegetation productivity. In summary, changing annual weather patterns, particularly in relation to seasonal precipitation, have the potential to alter body condition of this important ungulate species during the critical winter period. This finding highlights the importance of maintaining large contiguous areas of spatially and temporally variable resources to allow animals to compensate behaviourally for changing climate-driven resource patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate R Searle
- NERC Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Bush Estate, Penicuik, EH26 0QB, UK.
| | - Mindy B Rice
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, 317 W. Prospect Road, Fort Collins, CO, 80526, USA
| | - Charles R Anderson
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, 317 W. Prospect Road, Fort Collins, CO, 80526, USA
| | - Chad Bishop
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, 317 W. Prospect Road, Fort Collins, CO, 80526, USA
| | - N T Hobbs
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Sustainability, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 80524, CO, USA
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