Alkaline fuel cell membranes from xylylene block ionenes

Aryl ether-free polymer electrolytes for electrochemical and energy devices

Anion exchange polymers (AEPs) play a crucial role in green hydrogen production through anion exchange membrane water electrolysis. The chemical stability of AEPs is paramount for stable system operation in electrolysers and other electrochemical devices. Given the instability of aryl ether-containing AEPs under high pH conditions, recent research has focused on quaternized aryl ether-free variants. The primary goal of this review is to provide a greater depth of knowledge on the synthesis of aryl ether-free AEPs targeted for electrochemical devices. Synthetic pathways that yield polyaromatic AEPs include acid-catalysed polyhydroxyalkylation, metal-promoted coupling reactions, ionene synthesis via nucleophilic substitution, alkylation of polybenzimidazole, and Diels-Alder polymerization. Polyolefinic AEPs are prepared through addition polymerization, ring-opening metathesis, radiation grafting reactions, and anionic polymerization. Discussions cover structure-property-performance relationships of AEPs in fuel cells, redox flow batteries, and water and CO2 electrolysers, along with the current status of scale-up synthesis and commercialization.

Designing Imidazolium Poly(amide-amide) and Poly(amide-imide) Ionenes and Their Interactions with Mono- and Tris(imidazolium) Ionic Liquids

Here we introduce the synthesis and thermal properties of a series of sophisticated imidazolium ionenes with alternating amide-amide or amide-imide backbone functionality, and investigate the structural effects of mono(imidazolium) and unprecedented tris(imidazolium) ionic liquids (ILs) in these ionenes. The new set of poly(amide-amide) (PAA) and poly(amide-imide) (PAI) ionenes represent the intersection of conventional high-performance polymers with the ionene archetype-presenting polymers with alternating functional and ionic elements precisely sequenced along the backbone. The effects of polymer composition on the thermal properties and morphology were analyzed. Five distinct polymer backbones were synthesized and combined with a stoichiometric equivalent of the IL 1-benzyl-3-methylimidazolium bistriflimide ([Bnmim][Tf₂N]), which were studied to probe the self-assembly, structuring, and contributions of intermolecular forces when IL is added. Furthermore, three polyamide (PA) or polyimide (PI) ionenes with simpler xylyl linkages were interfaced with [Bnmim][Tf₂N] as well as a novel amide-linked tris(imidazolium) IL, to demonstrate the structural changes imparted by the inclusion of functional, ionic additives dispersed within the ionene matrix. This work highlights the possibilities for utilizing concepts from small molecules which exhibit supramolecular self-assembly to guide creative design and manipulate the structuring of ionenes.

Voltammetry at Hexamethyl-P-Terphenyl Poly(Benzimidazolium) (HMT-PMBI)-Coated Glassy Carbon Electrodes: Charge Transport Properties and Detection of Uric and Ascorbic Acid

We describe the voltammetric behavior of an anion-exchange membrane, hexamethyl-p-terphenyl poly(benzimidazolium) (HMT-PMBI). The anion-exchange properties of HMT-PMBI chemically modified electrodes were investigated using K4Fe(CN)6 and K2IrCl6 as redox probes. The permselectivity properties of HMT-PMBI chemically modified electrodes were ascertained using tris(2-2')bipyridyl-ruthenium(II) chloride Ru(bpy)32+. Cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry were utilized to extract parameters such as the concentration of the redox mediators inside the films and the apparent diffusion coefficients. We found the concentration of K4Fe(CN)6 and K2IrCl6 redox species within HMT-PMBI-coated films to be on the order of 0.04-0.1 mol·dm-3, and values of Dapp ca. 10-10-10-9 cm2·s-1. To evaluate the possibility of using such a polymer coating in electroanalysis, HMT-PMBI-modified electrodes were utilized for the voltammetric detection of uric acid in artificial urine, Surine® and ascorbic acid in Vitamin C samples. The results showed that HMT-PMBI-coated electrodes can detect uric acid in Surine® with a limit of detection (LoD) of 7.7 µM, sensitivity of 0.14 µA·µM-1·cm-2, and linear range between 5 μM and 200 μM, whereas for Vitamin C tablets, the LoD is 41.4 µM, the sensitivity is 0.08 µA·µM-1·cm-2, and the linear range is between 25 μM and 450 μM.

Facile synthesis and the properties of novel cardo poly(arylene ether sulfone)s with pendent cycloaminium side chains as anion exchange membranes

The structure of pendent cycloaminium side chains containing higher alkalinity of conductive groups was effective for improving the micro-phase separation of AEMs.

A novel poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide) with trifunctional ammonium moieties for alkaline anion exchange membranes

2,4,6-Tri(dimethylaminomethyl)-phenol was synthesized as a trifunctional moiety and incorporated onto poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide) (PPO) to obtain a novel quaternary ammonium functionalized PPO (PPO-TQA). Membranes of the polymer were fabricated and exhibited high conductivity, a low swelling ratio and water uptake.

Low-temperature crosslinking of anion exchange membranes

Crosslinked anion exchange membranes using low-temperature metathesis crosslinking showed excellent morphological order and displayed good membrane properties including ionic conductivity.

A dication cross-linked composite anion-exchange membrane for all-vanadium flow battery applications

We report the fabrication and properties of a high-performance, inexpensive, composite, anion-exchange membrane (AEM) for an all-vanadium flow battery (VFB) application. The AEM was fabricated by dication cross-linking without the involvement of trimethylamine, and shows well-balanced anion conductivity and robustness due to imidazolium and imidazolium-ammonium functionalities, as well as a concomitantly achieved semi-interpenetrating network structure. The VFB single cell yielded a Coulombic efficiency of 99 % and an energy efficiency of 84 % at 80 mA cm(-2) , and operated for over 900 charge/discharge cycles. This work demonstrates the combined use of several favorable AEM design rationales, such as incorporating abundant and efficient anion-exchange groups, constructing a swelling- and oxidation-resistant structure, and facile fabrication; it provides an effective way of developing high-performance, low-cost AEMs for VFB applications.

High Hydroxide Conductivity in Polymerized Ionic Liquid Block Copolymers

Herein, we report a polymerized ionic liquid diblock copolymer with high hydroxide conductivity and nanoscale morphology. Surprisingly, the conductivity is not only higher (over an order of magnitude) than its random copolymer analog at the same ion and water content, but also higher than its homopolymer analog, which has a higher ion and water content than the block copolymer. These results should have a significant impact on low-cost (platinum-free), long-lasting, solid-state alkaline fuel cells.