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Peeples ES, Mirnics K, Korade Z. Chemical Inhibition of Sterol Biosynthesis. Biomolecules 2024; 14:410. [PMID: 38672427 PMCID: PMC11048061 DOI: 10.3390/biom14040410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol is an essential molecule of life, and its synthesis can be inhibited by both genetic and nongenetic mechanisms. Hundreds of chemicals that we are exposed to in our daily lives can alter sterol biosynthesis. These also encompass various classes of FDA-approved medications, including (but not limited to) commonly used antipsychotic, antidepressant, antifungal, and cardiovascular medications. These medications can interfere with various enzymes of the post-lanosterol biosynthetic pathway, giving rise to complex biochemical changes throughout the body. The consequences of these short- and long-term homeostatic disruptions are mostly unknown. We performed a comprehensive review of the literature and built a catalogue of chemical agents capable of inhibiting post-lanosterol biosynthesis. This process identified significant gaps in existing knowledge, which fall into two main areas: mechanisms by which sterol biosynthesis is altered and consequences that arise from the inhibitions of the different steps in the sterol biosynthesis pathway. The outcome of our review also reinforced that sterol inhibition is an often-overlooked mechanism that can result in adverse consequences and that there is a need to develop new safety guidelines for the use of (novel and already approved) medications with sterol biosynthesis inhibiting side effects, especially during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric S. Peeples
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA;
- Child Health Research Institute, Omaha, NE 68198, USA;
- Division of Neonatology, Children’s Nebraska, Omaha, NE 68114, USA
| | - Karoly Mirnics
- Child Health Research Institute, Omaha, NE 68198, USA;
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
- Munroe-Meyer Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Zeljka Korade
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA;
- Child Health Research Institute, Omaha, NE 68198, USA;
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
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2
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Simvastatin Resistance of Leishmania amazonensis Induces Sterol Remodeling and Cross-Resistance to Sterol Pathway and Serine Protease Inhibitors. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10020398. [PMID: 35208853 PMCID: PMC8877030 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10020398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The sterol biosynthesis pathway of Leishmania spp. is used as a pharmacological target; however, available information about the mechanisms of the regulation and remodeling of sterol-related genes is scarce. The present study investigated compensatory mechanisms of the sterol biosynthesis pathway using an inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase (simvastatin) and by developing drug-resistant parasites to evaluate the impact on sterol remodeling, cross-resistance, and gene expression. Simvastatin-resistant L. amazonensis parasites (LaSimR) underwent reprogramming of sterol metabolism manifested as an increase in cholestane- and stigmastane-based sterols and a decrease in ergostane-based sterols. The levels of the transcripts of sterol 24-C-methyltransferase (SMT), sterol C14-α-demethylase (C14DM), and protease subtilisin (SUB) were increased in LaSimR. LaSimR was cross-resistance to ketoconazole (a C14DM inhibitor) and remained sensitive to terbinafine (an inhibitor of squalene monooxygenase). Sensitivity of the LaSimR mutant to other antileishmanial drugs unrelated to the sterol biosynthesis pathway, such as trivalent antimony and pentamidine, was similar to that of the wild-type strain; however, LaSimR was cross-resistant to miltefosine, general serine protease inhibitor N-p-tosyl-l-phenylalanine chloromethyl ketone (TPCK), subtilisin-specific inhibitor 4-[(diethylamino)methyl]-N-[2-(2-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-N-(3R)-3-pyrrolidinyl-benzamide dihydrochloride (PF-429242), and tunicamycin. The findings on the regulation of the sterol pathway can support the development of drugs and protease inhibitors targeting this route in parasites.
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Duschak VG. Major Kinds of Drug Targets in Chagas Disease or American Trypanosomiasis. Curr Drug Targets 2019; 20:1203-1216. [PMID: 31020939 DOI: 10.2174/1389450120666190423160804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
American Trypanosomiasis, a parasitic infection commonly named Chagas disease, affects millions of people all over Latin American countries. Presently, the World Health Organization (WHO) predicts that the number of international infected individuals extends to 7 to 8 million, assuming that more than 10,000 deaths occur annually. The transmission of the etiologic agent, Trypanosoma cruzi, through people migrating to non-endemic world nations makes it an emergent disease. The best promising targets for trypanocidal drugs may be classified into three main groups: Group I includes the main molecular targets that are considered among specific enzymes involved in the essential processes for parasite survival, principally Cruzipain, the major antigenic parasite cysteine proteinase. Group II involves biological pathways and their key specific enzymes, such as Sterol biosynthesis pathway, among others, specific antioxidant defense mechanisms, and bioenergetics ones. Group III includes the atypical organelles /structures present in the parasite relevant clinical forms, which are absent or considerably different from those present in mammals and biological processes related to them. These can be considered potential targets to develop drugs with extra effectiveness and fewer secondary effects than the currently used therapeutics. An improved distinction between the host and the parasite targets will help fight against this neglected disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vilma G Duschak
- National Council of Scientific and Technical Reasearch (CONICET) Researcher, Area of Protein Biochemistry and Parasite Glycobiology, Research Department, National Institute of Parasitology (INP), "Dr. Mario Fatala Chaben", ANLIS-Malbran, National Health Secretary, Av. Paseo Colon 568, Lab 506, Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires (1063), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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4
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Ansari MY, Ahsan MJ, Yasmin S, Sahoo GC, Saini V, Das P. In silico identification of novel antagonists and binding insights by structural and functional analyses of guanylate kinase of Leishmania donovani and interaction with inhibitors. GENE REPORTS 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.genrep.2017.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Asada M. Development and Distribution of Drugs for NTDs: Efforts of One Pharmaceutical Company. YAKUGAKU ZASSHI 2016; 136:223-30. [DOI: 10.1248/yakushi.15-00233-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Asada
- CINO Group, Product Creation Headquarters, Eisai Product Creation Systems, Eisai Co., Ltd
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6
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Choy JW, Bryant C, Calvet CM, Doyle PS, Gunatilleke SS, Leung SSF, Ang KKH, Chen S, Gut J, Oses-Prieto JA, Johnston JB, Arkin MR, Burlingame AL, Taunton J, Jacobson MP, McKerrow JM, Podust LM, Renslo AR. Chemical-biological characterization of a cruzain inhibitor reveals a second target and a mammalian off-target. Beilstein J Org Chem 2013; 9:15-25. [PMID: 23400640 PMCID: PMC3566858 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.9.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of the Trypanosoma cruzi cysteine protease cruzain has been proposed as a therapeutic approach for the treatment of Chagas’ disease. Among the best-studied cruzain inhibitors to date is the vinylsulfone K777 (1), which has proven effective in animal models of Chagas’ disease. Recent structure–activity studies aimed at addressing potential liabilities of 1 have now produced analogues such as N-[(2S)-1-[[(E,3S)-1-(benzenesulfonyl)-5-phenylpent-1-en-3-yl]amino]-3-(4-methylphenyl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]pyridine-4-carboxamide (4), which is trypanocidal at ten-fold lower concentrations than for 1. We now find that the trypanocidal activity of 4 derives primarily from the inhibition of T. cruzi 14-α-demethylase (TcCYP51), a cytochrome P450 enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of ergosterol in the parasite. Compound 4 also inhibits mammalian CYP isoforms but is trypanocidal at concentrations below those required to significantly inhibit mammalian CYPs in vitro. A chemical-proteomics approach employing an activity-based probe derived from 1 was used to identify mammalian cathepsin B as a potentially important off-target of 1 and 4. Computational docking studies and the evaluation of truncated analogues of 4 reveal structural determinants for TcCYP51 binding, information that will be useful in further optimization of this new class of inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan W Choy
- Small Molecule Discovery Center, University of California San Francisco, 1700 4th Street, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA ; Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco, 1700 4th Street, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA ; Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California San Francisco, 1700 4th Street, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
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7
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Andrade-Neto VV, Matos-Guedes HLD, Gomes DCDO, Canto-Cavalheiro MMD, Rossi-Bergmann B, Torres-Santos EC. The stepwise selection for ketoconazole resistance induces upregulation of C14-demethylase (CYP51) in Leishmania amazonensis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2012; 107:416-9. [PMID: 22510839 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762012000300018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2011] [Accepted: 11/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ketoconazole is a clinically safe antifungal agent that also inhibits the growth of Leishmania spp. A study was undertaken to determine whether Leishmania parasites are prone to becoming resistant to ketoconazole by upregulating C14-demethylase after stepwise pharmacological pressure. Leishmania amazonensis promastigotes [inhibitory concentration (IC)₅₀ = 2 µM] were subjected to stepwise selection with ketoconazole and two resistant lines were obtained, La8 (IC₅₀ = 8 µM) and La10 (IC₅₀ = 10 µM). As a result, we found that the resistance level was directly proportional to the C14-demethylase mRNA expression level; we also observed that expression levels were six and 12 times higher in La8 and La10, respectively. This is the first demonstration that L. amazonensis can up-regulate C14-demethylase in response to drug pressure and this report contributes to the understanding of the mechanisms of parasite resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valter Viana Andrade-Neto
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Tripanosomatídeos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
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Silva RR, Shrestha-Bajracharya D, Almeida-Leite CM, Leite R, Bahia MT, Talvani A. Short-term therapy with simvastatin reduces inflammatory mediators and heart inflammation during the acute phase of experimental Chagas disease. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2012; 107:513-21. [DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762012000400012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 02/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Andre Talvani
- Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto; Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Brasil
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Tomatidine promotes the inhibition of 24-alkylated sterol biosynthesis and mitochondrial dysfunction in Leishmania amazonensis promastigotes. Parasitology 2012; 139:1253-65. [PMID: 22716777 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182012000522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a set of clinically distinct infectious diseases caused by Leishmania, a genus of flagellated protozoan parasites, that affects ~12 million people worldwide, with ~2 million new infections annually. Plants are known to produce substances to defend themselves against pathogens and predators. In the genus Lycopersicon, which includes the tomato, L. esculentum, the main antimicrobial compound is the steroidal glycoalkaloid α-tomatine. The loss of the saccharide side-chain of tomatine yields the aglycone tomatidine. In the present study, we investigated the effects of tomatidine on the growth, mitochondrial membrane potential, sterol metabolism, and ultrastructure of Leishmania amazonensis promastigotes. Tomatidine (0·1 to 5 μM) inhibited parasite growth in a dose-dependent manner (IC(50)=124±59 nM). Transmission electron microscopy revealed lesions in the mitochondrial ultrastructure and the presence of large vacuoles and lipid storage bodies in the cytoplasm. These structural changes in the mitochondria were accompanied by an effective loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and a decrease in ATP levels. An analysis of the neutral lipid content revealed a large depletion of endogenous 24-alkylated sterols such as 24-methylene-cholesta-5, 7-dien-3β-ol (5-dehydroepisterol), with a concomitant accumulation of cholesta-8, 24-dien-3β-ol (zymosterol), which implied a perturbation in the cellular lipid content. These results are consistent with an inhibition of 24-sterol methyltransferase, an important enzyme responsible for the methylation of sterols at the 24 position, which is an essential step in the production of ergosterol and other 24-methyl sterols.
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Robertson SA, Renslo AR. Drug discovery for neglected tropical diseases at the Sandler Center. Future Med Chem 2011; 3:1279-88. [PMID: 21859302 PMCID: PMC3199145 DOI: 10.4155/fmc.11.85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The Sandler Center's approach to target-based drug discovery for neglected tropical diseases is to focus on parasite targets that are homologous to human targets being actively investigated in the pharmaceutical industry. In this way we attempt to use both the know-how and actual chemical matter from other drug-development efforts to jump start the discovery process for neglected tropical diseases. Our approach is akin to drug repurposing, except that we seek to repurpose leads rather than drugs. Medicinal chemistry can then be applied to optimize the leads specifically for the desired antiparasitic indication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie A Robertson
- Sandler Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, 600 16th Street, S-272, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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11
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Crowther GJ, Napuli AJ, Gilligan JH, Gagaring K, Borboa R, Francek C, Chen Z, Dagostino EF, Stockmyer JB, Wang Y, Rodenbough PP, Castaneda LJ, Leibly DJ, Bhandari J, Gelb MH, Brinker A, Engels IH, Taylor J, Chatterjee AK, Fantauzzi P, Glynne RJ, Van Voorhis WC, Kuhen KL. Identification of inhibitors for putative malaria drug targets among novel antimalarial compounds. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2010; 175:21-9. [PMID: 20813141 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2010.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2010] [Revised: 08/09/2010] [Accepted: 08/24/2010] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The efficacy of most marketed antimalarial drugs has been compromised by evolution of parasite resistance, underscoring an urgent need to find new drugs with new mechanisms of action. We have taken a high-throughput approach toward identifying novel antimalarial chemical inhibitors of prioritized drug targets for Plasmodium falciparum, excluding targets which are inhibited by currently used drugs. A screen of commercially available libraries identified 5655 low molecular weight compounds that inhibit growth of P. falciparum cultures with EC(50) values below 1.25μM. These compounds were then tested in 384- or 1536-well biochemical assays for activity against nine Plasmodium enzymes: adenylosuccinate synthetase (AdSS), choline kinase (CK), deoxyuridine triphosphate nucleotidohydrolase (dUTPase), glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), guanylate kinase (GK), N-myristoyltransferase (NMT), orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylase (OMPDC), farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase (FPPS) and S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase (SAHH). These enzymes were selected using TDRtargets.org, and are believed to have excellent potential as drug targets based on criteria such as their likely essentiality, druggability, and amenability to high-throughput biochemical screening. Six of these targets were inhibited by one or more of the antimalarial scaffolds and may have potential use in drug development, further target validation studies and exploration of P. falciparum biochemistry and biology.
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12
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Grisard EC, Stoco PH, Wagner G, Sincero TCM, Rotava G, Rodrigues JB, Snoeijer CQ, Koerich LB, Sperandio MM, Bayer-Santos E, Fragoso SP, Goldenberg S, Triana O, Vallejo GA, Tyler KM, Dávila AMR, Steindel M. Transcriptomic analyses of the avirulent protozoan parasite Trypanosoma rangeli. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2010; 174:18-25. [PMID: 20600354 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2010.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2010] [Revised: 05/24/2010] [Accepted: 06/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Two species of the genus Trypanosoma infective to humans have been extensively studied at a cell and molecular level, but study of the third, Trypanosoma rangeli, remains in relative infancy. T. rangeli is non-pathogenic, but is frequently mistaken for the related Chagas disease agent Trypanosoma cruzi with which it shares vectors, hosts, significant antigenicity and a sympatric distribution over a wide geographical area. In this study, we present the T. rangeli gene expression profile as determined by the generation of ESTs (Expressed Sequence Tags) and ORESTES (Open Reading Frame ESTs). A total of 4208 unique high quality sequences were analyzed, composed from epimastigote and trypomastigote forms of SC-58 and Choachí strains, representing the two major phylogenetic lineages of this species. Comparative analyses with T. cruzi and other parasitic kinetoplastid species allowed the assignment of putative biological functions to most of the sequences generated and the establishment of an annotated T. rangeli gene expression database. Even though T. rangeli is apathogenic to mammals, genes associated with virulence in other pathogenic kinetoplastids were found. Transposable elements and genes associated mitochondrial gene expression, specifically RNA editing components, are also described for the first time. Our studies confirm the close phylogenetic relationship between T. cruzi and T. rangeli and enable us to make an estimate for the size of the T. rangeli genome repertoire ( approximately 8500 genes).
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmundo C Grisard
- Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis 88040-970, SC, Brazil.
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Multiple NADPH–cytochrome P450 reductases from Trypanosoma cruzi. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2008; 160:42-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2008.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2007] [Revised: 03/12/2008] [Accepted: 03/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Siddiqui R, Matin A, Warhurst D, Stins M, Khan NA. Effect of antimicrobial compounds on Balamuthia mandrillaris encystment and human brain microvascular endothelial cell cytopathogenicity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51:4471-3. [PMID: 17875991 PMCID: PMC2168013 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00373-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Cycloheximide, ketoconazole, or preexposure of organisms to cytochalasin D prevented Balamuthia mandrillaris-associated cytopathogenicity in human brain microvascular endothelial cells, which constitute the blood-brain barrier. In an assay for inhibition of cyst production, these three agents prevented the production of cysts, suggesting that the biosynthesis of proteins and ergosterol and the polymerization of actin are important in cytopathogenicity and encystment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Birkbeck College, University of London, London WC1E 7HX, England, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Diseases caused by tropical parasites affect hundreds of millions of people worldwide but have been largely neglected for drug development because they affect poor people in poor regions of the world. Most of the current drugs used to treat these diseases are decades old and have many limitations, including the emergence of drug resistance. This review will summarize efforts to reinvigorate the drug development pipeline for these diseases, which is driven in large part by support from major philanthropies. The organisms responsible for these diseases have a fascinating biology, and many potential biochemical targets are now apparent. These neglected diseases present unique challenges to drug development that are being addressed by new consortia of scientists from academia and industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam R Renslo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and the Small Molecule Discovery Center, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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Lepesheva GI, Waterman MR. Sterol 14alpha-demethylase cytochrome P450 (CYP51), a P450 in all biological kingdoms. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2006; 1770:467-77. [PMID: 16963187 PMCID: PMC2324071 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2006.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 297] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2006] [Revised: 07/21/2006] [Accepted: 07/31/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The CYP51 family is an intriguing subject for fundamental P450 structure/function studies and is also an important clinical drug target. This review updates information on the variety of the CYP51 family members, including their physiological roles, natural substrates and substrate preferences, and catalytic properties in vitro. We present experimental support for the notion that specific conserved regions in the P450 sequences represent a CYP51 signature. Two possible roles of CYP51 in P450 evolution are discussed and the major approaches for CYP51 inhibition are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galina I Lepesheva
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232-0146, USA
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