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Xu C, Li X, Zhang X, Wu R, Zhou Y, Zhao Q, Zhang Y, Geng S, Gu Y, Hong S. Cardiac murmur grading and risk analysis of cardiac diseases based on adaptable heterogeneous-modality multi-task learning. Health Inf Sci Syst 2024; 12:2. [PMID: 38045019 PMCID: PMC10692066 DOI: 10.1007/s13755-023-00249-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease (CVDs) has become one of the leading causes of death, posing a significant threat to human life. The development of reliable Artificial Intelligence (AI) assisted diagnosis algorithms for cardiac sounds is of great significance for early detection and treatment of CVDs. However, there is scarce research in this field. Existing research mainly faces three major challenges: (1) They mainly limited to murmur classification and cannot achieve murmur grading, but attempting both classification and grading may lead to negative effects between different multi-tasks. (2) They mostly pay attention to unstructured cardiac sound modality and do not consider the structured demographic modality, as it is difficult to balance the influence of heterogeneous modalities. (3) Deep learning methods lack interpretability, which makes it challenging to apply them clinically. To tackle these challenges, we propose a method for cardiac murmur grading and cardiac risk analysis based on heterogeneous modality adaptive multi-task learning. Specifically, a Hierarchical Multi-Task learning-based cardiac murmur detection and grading method (HMT) is proposed to prevent negative interference between different tasks. In addition, a cardiac risk analysis method based on Heterogeneous Multi-modal feature impact Adaptation (HMA) is also proposed, which transforms unstructured modality into structured modality representation, and utilizes an adaptive mode weight learning mechanism to balance the impact between unstructured modality and structured modality, thus enhancing the performance of cardiac risk prediction. Finally, we propose a multi-task interpretability learning module that incorporates an important evaluation using random masks. This module utilizes SHAP graphs to visualize crucial murmur segments in cardiac sound and employs a multi-factor risk decoupling model based on nomograms. And then we gain insights into the cardiac disease risk in both pre-decoupled multi-modality and post-decoupled single-modality scenarios, thus providing a solid foundation for AI assisted cardiac murmur grading and risk analysis. Experimental results on a large real-world CirCor DigiScope PCG dataset demonstrate that the proposed method outperforms the state-of-the-art (SOTA) method in murmur detection, grading, and cardiac risk analysis, while also providing valuable diagnostic evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenyang Xu
- Department of Computer Science, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Xinyue Zhang
- Department of Computer Science, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Ruilin Wu
- Department of Computer Science, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Yuxi Zhou
- Department of Computer Science, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin, China
- DCST, BNRist, RIIT, Institute of Internet Industry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Qinghao Zhao
- Department of Cardiology, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- DCST, BNRist, RIIT, Institute of Internet Industry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | | | - Yue Gu
- Department of Computer Science, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Shenda Hong
- National Institute of Health Data Science, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Institute of Medical Technology, Peking University, Beijing, China
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Fathima AJ, Fasla MMN. A comprehensive review on heart disease prognostication using different artificial intelligence algorithms. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin 2024; 27:1357-1374. [PMID: 38424704 DOI: 10.1080/10255842.2024.2319706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Prediction of heart diseases on time is significant in order to preserve life. Many conventional methods have taken efforts on earlier prediction but faced with challenges of higher prediction cost, extended time for computation and complexities with larger volume of data which reduced prediction accuracy. In order to overcome such pitfalls, AI (Artificial Intelligence) technology has been evolved in diagnosing heart diseases through deployment of several ML (Machine Learning) and DL (Deep Learning) algorithms. It improves detection by influencing with its capacity of learning from the massive data containing age, obesity, hypertension and other risk factors of patients and extract it accordingly to differentiate on the circumstances. Moreover, storage of larger data with AI greatly assists in analysing the occurrence of the disease from past historical data. Hence, this paper intends to provide a review on different AI based algorithms used in the heart disease prognostication and delivers its benefits through researching on various existing works. It performs comparative analysis and critical assessment as encompassing accuracies and maximum utilization of algorithms focussed by traditional studies in this area. The major findings of the paper emphasized on the evolution and continuous explorations of AI techniques for heart disease prediction and the future researchers aims in determining the dimensions that have attained high and low prediction accuracies on which appropriate research works can be performed. Finally, future research is included to offer new stimulus for further investigation of AI in cardiac disease diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Jainul Fathima
- Assistant Professor, IT Francis Xavier Engineering College, Tirunelveli - 627003, India
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Zhou G, Chien C, Chen J, Luan L, Chen Y, Carroll S, Dayton J, Thanjan M, Bayle K, Flynn P. Identifying pediatric heart murmurs and distinguishing innocent from pathologic using deep learning. Artif Intell Med 2024; 153:102867. [PMID: 38723434 DOI: 10.1016/j.artmed.2024.102867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To develop a deep learning algorithm to perform multi-class classification of normal pediatric heart sounds, innocent murmurs, and pathologic murmurs. METHODS We prospectively enrolled children under age 18 being evaluated by the Division of Pediatric Cardiology. Parents provided consent for a deidentified recording of their child's heart sounds with a digital stethoscope. Innocent murmurs were validated by a pediatric cardiologist and pathologic murmurs were validated by echocardiogram. To augment our collection of normal heart sounds, we utilized a public database of pediatric heart sound recordings (Oliveira, 2022). We propose two novel approaches for this audio classification task. We train a vision transformer on either Markov transition field or Gramian angular field image representations of the frequency spectrum. We benchmark our results against a ResNet-50 CNN trained on spectrogram images. RESULTS Our final dataset consisted of 366 normal heart sounds, 175 innocent murmurs, and 216 pathologic murmurs. Innocent murmurs collected include Still's murmur, venous hum, and flow murmurs. Pathologic murmurs included ventricular septal defect, tetralogy of Fallot, aortic regurgitation, aortic stenosis, pulmonary stenosis, mitral regurgitation and stenosis, and tricuspid regurgitation. We find that the Vision Transformer consistently outperforms the ResNet-50 on all three image representations, and that the Gramian angular field is the superior image representation for pediatric heart sounds. We calculated a one-vs-rest multi-class ROC curve for each of the three classes. Our best model achieves an area under the curve (AUC) value of 0.92 ± 0.05, 0.83 ± 0.04, and 0.88 ± 0.04 for identifying normal heart sounds, innocent murmurs, and pathologic murmurs, respectively. CONCLUSION We present two novel methods for pediatric heart sound classification, which outperforms the current standard of using a convolutional neural network trained on spectrogram images. To our knowledge, we are the first to demonstrate multi-class classification of pediatric murmurs. Multiclass output affords a more explainable and interpretable model, which can facilitate further model improvement in the downstream model development cycle and enhance clinician trust and therefore adoption.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Zhou
- Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| | - Candace Chien
- Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
| | - Justin Chen
- Staten Island University Hospital, Northwell Health, Staten Island, NY 10305, USA
| | - Lucille Luan
- Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | | | - Sheila Carroll
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Jeffrey Dayton
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Maria Thanjan
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital Queens, New York, NY 11355, USA
| | - Ken Bayle
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital Queens, New York, NY 11355, USA
| | - Patrick Flynn
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY 10021, USA
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Aversano L, Bernardi ML, Cimitile M, Montano D, Pecori R. Characterization of Heart Diseases per Single Lead Using ECG Images and CNN-2D. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:3485. [PMID: 38894275 PMCID: PMC11174772 DOI: 10.3390/s24113485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Cardiopathy has become one of the predominant global causes of death. The timely identification of different types of heart diseases significantly diminishes mortality risk and enhances the efficacy of treatment. However, fast and efficient recognition necessitates continuous monitoring, encompassing not only specific clinical conditions but also diverse lifestyles. Consequently, an increasing number of studies are striving to automate and progress in the identification of different cardiopathies. Notably, the assessment of electrocardiograms (ECGs) is crucial, given that it serves as the initial diagnostic test for patients, proving to be both the simplest and the most cost-effective tool. This research employs a customized architecture of Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to forecast heart diseases by analyzing the images of both three bands of electrodes and of each single electrode signal of the ECG derived from four distinct patient categories, representing three heart-related conditions as well as a spectrum of healthy controls. The analyses are conducted on a real dataset, providing noteworthy performance (recall greater than 80% for the majority of the considered diseases and sometimes even equal to 100%) as well as a certain degree of interpretability thanks to the understanding of the importance a band of electrodes or even a single ECG electrode can have in detecting a specific heart-related pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lerina Aversano
- Department of Agricultural Science, Food, Natural Resources and Engineering, University of Foggia, 71122 Foggia, FG, Italy
| | - Mario Luca Bernardi
- Department of Engineering, University of Sannio, 82100 Benevento, BN, Italy;
| | - Marta Cimitile
- Department of Law and Digital Society, Unitelma Sapienza University, 00161 Rome, RM, Italy;
| | - Debora Montano
- CeRICT scrl, Regional Center Information Communication Technology, 82100 Benevento, BN, Italy
| | - Riccardo Pecori
- Institute of Materials for Electronics and Magnetism, National Research Council of Italy, 43124 Parma, PR, Italy
- SMARTEST Research Centre, eCampus University, 22060 Novedrate, CO, Italy
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Ranipa K, Zhu WP, Swamy MNS. A novel feature-level fusion scheme with multimodal attention CNN for heart sound classification. COMPUTER METHODS AND PROGRAMS IN BIOMEDICINE 2024; 248:108122. [PMID: 38507960 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2024.108122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Most of the existing machine learning-based heart sound classification methods achieve limited accuracy. Since they primarily depend on single domain feature information and tend to focus equally on each part of the signal rather than employing a selective attention mechanism. In addition, they fail to exploit convolutional neural network (CNN) - based features with an effective fusion strategy. METHODS In order to overcome these limitations, a novel multimodal attention convolutional neural network (MACNN) with a feature-level fusion strategy, in which Mel-cepstral domain as well as general frequency domain features are incorporated to increase the diversity of the features, is proposed in this paper. In the proposed method, DilationAttenNet is first utilized to construct attention-based CNN feature extractors and then these feature extractors are jointly optimized in MACNN at the feature-level. The attention mechanism aims to suppress irrelevant information and focus on crucial diverse features extracted from the CNN. RESULTS Extensive experiments are carried out to study the efficacy of the feature level fusion in comparison to that with early fusion. The results show that the proposed MACNN method significantly outperforms the state-of-the-art approaches in terms of accuracy and score for the two publicly available Github and Physionet datasets. CONCLUSION The findings of our experiments demonstrated the high performance for heart sound classification based on the proposed MACNN, and hence have potential clinical usefulness in the identification of heart diseases. This technique can assist cardiologists and researchers in the design and development of heart sound classification methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalpeshkumar Ranipa
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, Canada.
| | - Wei-Ping Zhu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, Canada.
| | - M N S Swamy
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, Canada.
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6
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Aarthy ST, Mazher Iqbal JL. A novel deep learning approach for early detection of cardiovascular diseases from ECG signals. Med Eng Phys 2024; 125:104111. [PMID: 38508789 DOI: 10.1016/j.medengphy.2024.104111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases, often asymptomatic until severe, pose a significant challenge in medical diagnosis. Despite individuals' normal outward appearance and routine activities, subtle indications of these diseases can manifest in the electrocardiogram (ECG) signals, often overlooked by standard interpretation. Current machine learning models have been ineffective in discerning these minor variations due to the irregular and subtle nature of changes in the ECG patterns. This paper uses a novel deep-learning approach to predict slight variations in ECG signals by fine-tuning the learning rate of a deep convolutional neural network. The strategy involves segmenting ECG signals into separate data sequences, each evaluated for unique centroid points. Utilizing a clustering approach, this technique efficiently recognizes minute yet significant variations in the ECG signal characteristics. This method is estimated using a specific dataset from SRM College Hospital and Research Centre, Kattankulathur, Chennai, India, focusing on patients' ECG signals. The model aims to predict the ordinary and subtle variations in ECG signal patterns, which were subsequently mapped to a pre-trained feature set of cardiovascular diseases. The results suggest that the proposed method outperforms existing state-of-the-art approaches in detecting minor and irregular ECG signal variations. This advancement could significantly enhance the early detection of cardiovascular diseases, offering a promising new tool in predictive medical diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- S T Aarthy
- Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R &D Institute of Science and Technology, Avadi, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India; Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - J L Mazher Iqbal
- Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R &D Institute of Science and Technology, Avadi, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
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Abbas S, Ojo S, Al Hejaili A, Sampedro GA, Almadhor A, Zaidi MM, Kryvinska N. Artificial intelligence framework for heart disease classification from audio signals. Sci Rep 2024; 14:3123. [PMID: 38326488 PMCID: PMC10850078 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-53778-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024] Open
Abstract
As cardiovascular disorders are prevalent, there is a growing demand for reliable and precise diagnostic methods within this domain. Audio signal-based heart disease detection is a promising area of research that leverages sound signals generated by the heart to identify and diagnose cardiovascular disorders. Machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) techniques are pivotal in classifying and identifying heart disease from audio signals. This study investigates ML and DL techniques to detect heart disease by analyzing noisy sound signals. This study employed two subsets of datasets from the PASCAL CHALLENGE having real heart audios. The research process and visually depict signals using spectrograms and Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCCs). We employ data augmentation to improve the model's performance by introducing synthetic noise to the heart sound signals. In addition, a feature ensembler is developed to integrate various audio feature extraction techniques. Several machine learning and deep learning classifiers are utilized for heart disease detection. Among the numerous models studied and previous study findings, the multilayer perceptron model performed best, with an accuracy rate of 95.65%. This study demonstrates the potential of this methodology in accurately detecting heart disease from sound signals. These findings present promising opportunities for enhancing medical diagnosis and patient care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sidra Abbas
- Department of Computer Science, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan.
| | - Stephen Ojo
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering Anderson, Anderson, SC, 29621, USA
| | - Abdullah Al Hejaili
- Computer Science Department, Faculty of Computers and Information Technology, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, 71491, Saudi Arabia
| | - Gabriel Avelino Sampedro
- Faculty of Information and Communication Studies, University of the Philippines Open University, Los Baños, 4031, Philippines
- Center for Computational Imaging and Visual Innovations, De La Salle University, 2401 Taft Ave., Malate, 1004, Manila, Philippines
| | - Ahmad Almadhor
- Department of Computer Engineering and Networks, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Jouf University, 72388, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia
| | - Monji Mohamed Zaidi
- Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Natalia Kryvinska
- Information Systems Department, Faculty of Management, Comenius University in Bratislava, Odbojárov 10, 82005, Bratislava 25, Slovakia.
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Liu A, Zhang S, Wang Z, Tang Y, Zhang X, Wang Y. A learnable front-end based efficient channel attention network for heart sound classification. Physiol Meas 2023; 44:095003. [PMID: 37619586 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6579/acf3cf] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Objective. To enhance the accuracy of heart sound classification, this study aims to overcome the limitations of common models which rely on handcrafted feature extraction. These traditional methods may distort or discard crucial pathological information within heart sounds due to their requirement of tedious parameter settings.Approach.We propose a learnable front-end based Efficient Channel Attention Network (ECA-Net) for heart sound classification. This novel approach optimizes the transformation of waveform-to-spectrogram, enabling adaptive feature extraction from heart sound signals without domain knowledge. The features are subsequently fed into an ECA-Net based convolutional recurrent neural network, which emphasizes informative features and suppresses irrelevant information. To address data imbalance, Focal loss is employed in our model.Main results.Using the well-known public PhysioNet challenge 2016 dataset, our method achieved a classification accuracy of 97.77%, outperforming the majority of previous studies and closely rivaling the best model with a difference of just 0.57%.Significance.The learnable front-end facilitates end-to-end training by replacing the conventional heart sound feature extraction module. This provides a novel and efficient approach for heart sound classification research and applications, enhancing the practical utility of end-to-end models in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aolei Liu
- School of Optical Information and Computer Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, People's Republic of China
| | - Sunjie Zhang
- School of Optical Information and Computer Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhe Wang
- School of Optical Information and Computer Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiheng Tang
- School of Optical Information and Computer Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoli Zhang
- School of Optical Information and Computer Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongxiong Wang
- School of Optical Information and Computer Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, People's Republic of China
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Sadad T, Safran M, Khan I, Alfarhood S, Khan R, Ashraf I. Efficient Classification of ECG Images Using a Lightweight CNN with Attention Module and IoT. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:7697. [PMID: 37765754 PMCID: PMC10537152 DOI: 10.3390/s23187697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 09/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Cardiac disorders are a leading cause of global casualties, emphasizing the need for the initial diagnosis and prevention of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Electrocardiogram (ECG) procedures are highly recommended as they provide crucial cardiology information. Telemedicine offers an opportunity to provide low-cost tools and widespread availability for CVD management. In this research, we proposed an IoT-based monitoring and detection system for cardiac patients, employing a two-stage approach. In the initial stage, we used a routing protocol that combines routing by energy and link quality (REL) with dynamic source routing (DSR) to efficiently collect data on an IoT healthcare platform. The second stage involves the classification of ECG images using hybrid-based deep features. Our classification system utilizes the "ECG Images dataset of Cardiac Patients", comprising 12-lead ECG images with four distinct categories: abnormal heartbeat, myocardial infarction (MI), previous history of MI, and normal ECG. For feature extraction, we employed a lightweight CNN, which automatically extracts relevant ECG features. These features were further optimized through an attention module, which is the method's main focus. The model achieved a remarkable accuracy of 98.39%. Our findings suggest that this system can effectively aid in the identification of cardiac disorders. The proposed approach combines IoT, deep learning, and efficient routing protocols, showcasing its potential for improving CVD diagnosis and management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tariq Sadad
- Department of Computer Science, University of Engineering & Technology, Mardan 23200, Pakistan; (T.S.); (I.K.); (R.K.)
| | - Mejdl Safran
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 51178, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Inayat Khan
- Department of Computer Science, University of Engineering & Technology, Mardan 23200, Pakistan; (T.S.); (I.K.); (R.K.)
| | - Sultan Alfarhood
- Department of Computer Science, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 51178, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Razaullah Khan
- Department of Computer Science, University of Engineering & Technology, Mardan 23200, Pakistan; (T.S.); (I.K.); (R.K.)
| | - Imran Ashraf
- Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea;
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Torre-Cruz J, Canadas-Quesada F, Ruiz-Reyes N, Vera-Candeas P, Garcia-Galan S, Carabias-Orti J, Ranilla J. Detection of valvular heart diseases combining orthogonal non-negative matrix factorization and convolutional neural networks in PCG signals. J Biomed Inform 2023; 145:104475. [PMID: 37595770 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbi.2023.104475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Valvular heart disease (VHD) is associated with elevated mortality rates. Although transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is the gold standard detection tool, phonocardiography (PCG) could be an alternative as it is a cost-effective and noninvasive method for cardiac auscultation. Many researchers have dedicated their efforts to improving the decision-making process and developing robust and precise approaches to assist physicians in providing reliable diagnoses of VHD. METHODS This research proposes a novel approach for the detection of anomalous valvular heart sounds from PCG signals. The proposed approach combines orthogonal non-negative matrix factorization (ONMF) and convolutional neural network (CNN) architectures in a three-stage cascade. The aim of the proposal is to improve the learning process by identifying the optimal ONMF temporal or spectral patterns for accurate detection. In the first stage, the time-frequency representation of the input PCG signal is computed. Next, band-pass filtering is performed to locate the spectral range that is most relevant for the presence of such cardiac abnormalities. In the second stage, the temporal and spectral cardiac structures are extracted using the ONMF approach. These structures are utilized in the third stage and fed into the CNN architecture to detect abnormal heart sounds. RESULTS Several state-of-the-art CNN architectures, such as LeNet5, AlexNet, ResNet50, VGG16 and GoogLeNet, have been evaluated to determine the effectiveness of using ONMF temporal features for VHD detection. The results reveal that the integration of ONMF temporal features with a CNN classifier significantly improve VHD detection. Specifically, the proposed approach achieves an accuracy improvement of approximately 45% when ONMF spectral features are used and 35% when time-frequency features from the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) spectrogram are used. Additionally, feeding ONMF temporal features into low-complexity CNN architectures yields competitive results comparable to those obtained with complex architectures. CONCLUSIONS The temporal structure factorized by ONMF plays a critical role in distinguishing between normal heart sounds and abnormal heart sounds since the repeatability of normal heart cycles is disrupted by the presence of cardiac abnormalities. Consequently, the results highlight the importance of appropriate input data representation in the learning process of CNN models in the biomedical field of valvular heart sound detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Torre-Cruz
- Department of Telecommunication Engineering. University of Jaen, Campus Cientifico-Tecnologico de Linares, Avda. de la Universidad, s/n, Linares (Jaen), 23700, Spain.
| | - F Canadas-Quesada
- Department of Telecommunication Engineering. University of Jaen, Campus Cientifico-Tecnologico de Linares, Avda. de la Universidad, s/n, Linares (Jaen), 23700, Spain
| | - N Ruiz-Reyes
- Department of Telecommunication Engineering. University of Jaen, Campus Cientifico-Tecnologico de Linares, Avda. de la Universidad, s/n, Linares (Jaen), 23700, Spain
| | - P Vera-Candeas
- Department of Telecommunication Engineering. University of Jaen, Campus Cientifico-Tecnologico de Linares, Avda. de la Universidad, s/n, Linares (Jaen), 23700, Spain
| | - S Garcia-Galan
- Department of Telecommunication Engineering. University of Jaen, Campus Cientifico-Tecnologico de Linares, Avda. de la Universidad, s/n, Linares (Jaen), 23700, Spain
| | - J Carabias-Orti
- Department of Telecommunication Engineering. University of Jaen, Campus Cientifico-Tecnologico de Linares, Avda. de la Universidad, s/n, Linares (Jaen), 23700, Spain
| | - J Ranilla
- Department of Computer Science, University of Oviedo, Campus de Gijón s/n, Gijon (Asturias), 33203, Spain
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Kumar SVM, Dhinakar P, Nishanth R. Aortic Stenosis Detection Using Spectral Statistical Features of Heart Sound Signals. EAI ENDORSED TRANSACTIONS ON PERVASIVE HEALTH AND TECHNOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.4108/eetpht.v9i1.3185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION: Aortic stenosis (AS) is a severe complicated heart valve disease. This valve abnormality is a slow-progressive condition and mostly asymptomatic. Hence, there is a need for a rapid non-invasive AS diagnosis method with minimal feature extraction.
OBJECTIVE: In this paper, we proposed a rapid spectral analysis-based statistical feature extraction method to identify the AS stages with the minimum number of features.
METHODS: In this study, the heart sound signals were collected from the medical database and transformed into the frequency domain for further spectral feature analysis. We used the windowing technique to condition the heart signals before spectral analysis. The spectral statistical features were extracted from the computed frequency spectrum. The range of statistical features was compared for normal, early, and delayed AS groups.
RESULTS: In experiments, the normal, early, and delayed AS heart sound signals were used. The experimental results show the statistical difference between the normal and AS heart sound signal spectrums. The normal/unhealthy condition of a heart was identified using the statistical features of the frequency spectrum.
CONCLUSION: The experimental results confirmed that the statistical features derived from the heart sound signal spectrums were varied according to the AS condition. Hence, the spectral statistical features can be considered as a rapid predictor of AS.
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An efficient and robust Phonocardiography (PCG)-based Valvular Heart Diseases (VHD) detection framework using Vision Transformer (ViT). Comput Biol Med 2023; 158:106734. [PMID: 36989745 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.106734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Valvular heart diseases (VHDs) are one of the dominant causes of cardiovascular abnormalities that have been associated with high mortality rates globally. Rapid and accurate diagnosis of the early stage of VHD based on cardiac phonocardiogram (PCG) signal is critical that allows for optimum medication and reduction of mortality rate. METHODS To this end, the current study proposes novel deep learning (DL)-based high-performance VHD detection frameworks that are relatively simpler in terms of network structures, yet effective for accurately detecting multiple VHDs. We present three different frameworks considering both 1D and 2D PCG raw signals. For 1D PCG, Mel frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCC) and linear prediction cepstral coefficients (LPCC) features, whereas, for 2D PCG, various deep convolutional neural networks (D-CNNs) features are extracted. Additionally, nature/bio-inspired algorithms (NIA/BIA) including particle swarm optimization (PSO) and genetic algorithm (GA) have been utilized for automatic and efficient feature selection directly from the raw PCG signal. To further improve the performance of the classifier, vision transformer (ViT) has been implemented levering the self-attention mechanism on the time frequency representation (TFR) of 2D PCG signal. Our extensive study presents a comparative performance analysis and the scope of enhancement for the combination of different descriptors, classifiers, and feature selection algorithms. MAIN RESULTS Among all classifiers, ViT provides the best performance by achieving mean average accuracy Acc of 99.90 % and F1-score of 99.95 % outperforming current state-of-the-art VHD classification models. CONCLUSIONS The present research provides a robust and efficient DL-based end-to-end PCG signal classification framework for designing a automated high-performance VHD diagnosis system.
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13
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Chen X, Li H, Huang Y, Han W, Yu X, Zhang P, Tao R. Heart sound classification based on equal scale frequency cepstral coefficients and deep learning. BIOMED ENG-BIOMED TE 2023:bmt-2021-0254. [PMID: 36780471 DOI: 10.1515/bmt-2021-0254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
Heart diseases represent a serious medical condition that can be fatal. Therefore, it is critical to investigate the measures of its early prevention. The Mel-scale frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCC) feature has been widely used in the early diagnosis of heart abnormity and achieved promising results. During feature extraction, the Mel-scale triangular overlapping filter set is applied, which makes the frequency response more in line with the human auditory property. However, the frequency of the heart sound signals has no specific relationship with the human auditory system, which may not be suitable for processing of heart sound signals. To overcome this issue and obtain a more objective feature that can better adapt to practical use, in this work, we propose an equal scale frequency cepstral coefficients (EFCC) feature based on replacing the Mel-scale filter set with a set of equally spaced triangular overlapping filters. We further designed classifiers combining convolutional neural network (CNN), recurrent neural network (RNN) and random forest (RF) layers, which can extract both the spatial and temporal information of the input features. We evaluated the proposed algorithm on our database and the PhysioNet Computational Cardiology (CinC) 2016 Challenge Database. Results from ten-fold cross-validation reveal that the EFCC-based features show considerably better performance and robustness than the MFCC-based features on the task of classifying heart sounds from novel patients. Our algorithm can be further used in wearable medical devices to monitor the heart status of patients in real time with high precision, which is of great clinical importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Chen
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
| | - Hongru Li
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
| | - Youhe Huang
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
| | - Weiwei Han
- Shijiazhuang First People's Hospital, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xia Yu
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
| | - Pengfei Zhang
- Hebei Derui Health Technology Co., Ltd, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Rui Tao
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
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14
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An Optimal Approach for Heart Sound Classification Using Grid Search in Hyperparameter Optimization of Machine Learning. BIOENGINEERING (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 10:bioengineering10010045. [PMID: 36671616 PMCID: PMC9854602 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering10010045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Heart-sound auscultation is one of the most widely used approaches for detecting cardiovascular disorders. Diagnosing abnormalities of heart sound using a stethoscope depends on the physician's skill and judgment. Several studies have shown promising results in automatically detecting cardiovascular disorders based on heart-sound signals. However, the accuracy performance needs to be enhanced as automated heart-sound classification aids in the early detection and prevention of the dangerous effects of cardiovascular problems. In this study, an optimal heart-sound classification method based on machine learning technologies for cardiovascular disease prediction is performed. It consists of three steps: pre-processing that sets the 5 s duration of the PhysioNet Challenge 2016 and 2022 datasets, feature extraction using Mel frequency cepstrum coefficients (MFCC), and classification using grid search for hyperparameter tuning of several classifier algorithms including k-nearest neighbor (K-NN), random forest (RF), artificial neural network (ANN), and support vector machine (SVM). The five-fold cross-validation was used to evaluate the performance of the proposed method. The best model obtained classification accuracy of 95.78% and 76.31%, which was assessed using PhysioNet Challenge 2016 and 2022, respectively. The findings demonstrate that the suggested approach obtained excellent classification results using PhysioNet Challenge 2016 and showed promising results using PhysioNet Challenge 2022. Therefore, the proposed method has been potentially developed as an additional tool to facilitate the medical practitioner in diagnosing the abnormality of the heart sound.
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15
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Abbas Q, Hussain A, Baig AR. Automatic Detection and Classification of Cardiovascular Disorders Using Phonocardiogram and Convolutional Vision Transformers. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022; 12:diagnostics12123109. [PMID: 36553116 PMCID: PMC9777096 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12123109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The major cause of death worldwide is due to cardiovascular disorders (CVDs). For a proper diagnosis of CVD disease, an inexpensive solution based on phonocardiogram (PCG) signals is proposed. (1) Background: Currently, a few deep learning (DL)-based CVD systems have been developed to recognize different stages of CVD. However, the accuracy of these systems is not up-to-the-mark, and the methods require high computational power and huge training datasets. (2) Methods: To address these issues, we developed a novel attention-based technique (CVT-Trans) on a convolutional vision transformer to recognize and categorize PCG signals into five classes. The continuous wavelet transform-based spectrogram (CWTS) strategy was used to extract representative features from PCG data. Following that, a new CVT-Trans architecture was created to categorize the CWTS signals into five groups. (3) Results: The dataset derived from our investigation indicated that the CVT-Trans system had an overall average accuracy ACC of 100%, SE of 99.00%, SP of 99.5%, and F1-score of 98%, based on 10-fold cross validation. (4) Conclusions: The CVD-Trans technique outperformed many state-of-the-art methods. The robustness of the constructed model was confirmed by 10-fold cross-validation. Cardiologists can use this CVT-Trans system to help patients with the diagnosis of heart valve problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qaisar Abbas
- College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh 11432, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ayyaz Hussain
- Department of Computer Science, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
| | - Abdul Rauf Baig
- College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh 11432, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +966-563336816
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16
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Rezaee K, Khosravi MR, Jabari M, Hesari S, Anari MS, Aghaei F. Graph convolutional network‐based deep feature learning for cardiovascular disease recognition from heart sound signals. INT J INTELL SYST 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/int.23041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Khosro Rezaee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering Meybod University Meybod Iran
| | - Mohammad R. Khosravi
- Shandong Provincial University Laboratory for Protected Horticulture Weifang University of Science and Technology Weifang Shandong China
- Department of Computer Engineering Persian Gulf University Bushehr Iran
| | - Mohammad Jabari
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Tabriz Tabriz Iran
| | - Shabnam Hesari
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Ferdows Branch Islamic Azad University Ferdows Iran
| | - Maryam Saberi Anari
- Department of Computer Engineering Technical and Vocational University (TVU) Tehran Iran
| | - Fahimeh Aghaei
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Ozyegin University Istanbul Turkey
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17
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Shannon entropy Morlet wavelet Transform (SEMWT) and Kernel Weight Convolutional Neural Network (KWCNN) classifier for arrhythmia in electrocardiogram recordings. Biomed Signal Process Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2022.103992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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18
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A Deep Ensemble Neural Network with Attention Mechanisms for Lung Abnormality Classification Using Audio Inputs. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22155566. [PMID: 35898070 PMCID: PMC9332569 DOI: 10.3390/s22155566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Revised: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Medical audio classification for lung abnormality diagnosis is a challenging problem owing to comparatively unstructured audio signals present in the respiratory sound clips. To tackle such challenges, we propose an ensemble model by incorporating diverse deep neural networks with attention mechanisms for undertaking lung abnormality and COVID-19 diagnosis using respiratory, speech, and coughing audio inputs. Specifically, four base deep networks are proposed, which include attention-based Convolutional Recurrent Neural Network (A-CRNN), attention-based bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (A-BiLSTM), attention-based bidirectional Gated Recurrent Unit (A-BiGRU), as well as Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). A Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm is used to optimize the training parameters of each network. An ensemble mechanism is used to integrate the outputs of these base networks by averaging the probability predictions of each class. Evaluated using respiratory ICBHI, Coswara breathing, speech, and cough datasets, as well as a combination of ICBHI and Coswara breathing databases, our ensemble model and base networks achieve ICBHI scores ranging from 0.920 to 0.9766. Most importantly, the empirical results indicate that a positive COVID-19 diagnosis can be distinguished to a high degree from other more common respiratory diseases using audio recordings, based on the combined ICBHI and Coswara breathing datasets.
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19
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Wang M, Wang J, Hu Y, Guo B, Tang H. Detection of pulmonary hypertension with six training strategies based on deep learning technology. Comput Intell 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/coin.12527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Miao Wang
- School of Biomedical Engineering Dalian University of Technology Dalian China
| | - JiWen Wang
- Cardiovascular Department The Second Hospital of DaLian Medical University Dalian China
| | - YaTing Hu
- School of Biomedical Engineering Dalian University of Technology Dalian China
| | - BinBin Guo
- School of Biomedical Engineering Dalian University of Technology Dalian China
| | - Hong Tang
- School of Biomedical Engineering Dalian University of Technology Dalian China
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20
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Automatic detection of heart valve disorders using Teager–Kaiser energy operator, rational-dilation wavelet transform and convolutional neural networks with PCG signals. Artif Intell Rev 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10462-022-10184-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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21
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Chen SW, Wang SL, Qi XZ, Samuri SM, Yang C. Review of ECG detection and classification based on deep learning: Coherent taxonomy, motivation, open challenges and recommendations. Biomed Signal Process Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2022.103493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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22
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An audio processing pipeline for acquiring diagnostic quality heart sounds via mobile phone. Comput Biol Med 2022; 145:105415. [PMID: 35366471 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2022.105415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Recently, heart sound signals captured using mobile phones have been employed to develop data-driven heart disease detection systems. Such signals are generally captured in person by trained clinicians who can determine if the recorded heart sounds are of diagnosable quality. However, mobile phones have the potential to support heart health diagnostics, even where access to trained medical professionals is limited. To adopt mobile phones as self-diagnostic tools for the masses, we would need to have a mechanism to automatically establish that heart sounds recorded by non-expert users in uncontrolled conditions have the required quality for diagnostic purposes. This paper proposes a quality assessment and enhancement pipeline for heart sounds captured using mobile phones. The pipeline analyzes a heart sound and determines if it has the required quality for diagnostic tasks. Also, in cases where the quality of the captured signal is below the required threshold, the pipeline can improve the quality by applying quality enhancement algorithms. Using this pipeline, we can also provide feedback to users regarding the cause of low-quality signal capture and guide them towards a successful one. We conducted a survey of a group of thirteen clinicians with auscultation skills and experience. The results of this survey were used to inform and validate the proposed quality assessment and enhancement pipeline. We observed a high level of agreement between the survey results and fundamental design decisions within the proposed pipeline. Also, the results indicate that the proposed pipeline can reduce our dependency on trained clinicians for capture of diagnosable heart sounds.
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23
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Assessment of Dual-Tree Complex Wavelet Transform to Improve SNR in Collaboration with Neuro-Fuzzy System for Heart-Sound Identification. ELECTRONICS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/electronics11060938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The research paper proposes a novel denoising method to improve the outcome of heart-sound (HS)-based heart-condition identification by applying the dual-tree complex wavelet transform (DTCWT) together with the adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference System (ANFIS) classifier. The method consists of three steps: first, preprocessing to eliminate 50 Hz noise; second, applying four successive levels of DTCWT to denoise and reconstruct the time-domain HS signal; third, to evaluate ANFIS on a total of 2735 HS recordings from an international dataset (PhysioNet Challenge 2016). The results show that the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) with DTCWT was significantly improved (p < 0.001) as compared to original HS recordings. Quantitatively, there was an 11% to many decibel (dB)-fold increase in SNR after DTCWT, representing a significant improvement in denoising HS. In addition, the ANFIS, using six time-domain features, resulted in 55–86% precision, 51–98% recall, 53–86% f-score, and 54–86% MAcc compared to other attempts on the same dataset. Therefore, DTCWT is a successful technique in removing noise from biosignals such as HS recordings. The adaptive property of ANFIS exhibited capability in classifying HS recordings.
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24
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The Effect of Signal Duration on the Classification of Heart Sounds: A Deep Learning Approach. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22062261. [PMID: 35336432 PMCID: PMC8951308 DOI: 10.3390/s22062261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Revised: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Deep learning techniques are the future trend for designing heart sound classification methods, making conventional heart sound segmentation dispensable. However, despite using fixed signal duration for training, no study has assessed its effect on the final performance in detail. Therefore, this study aims at analysing the duration effect on the commonly used deep learning methods to provide insight for future studies in data processing, classifier, and feature selection. The results of this study revealed that (1) very short heart sound signal duration (1 s) weakens the performance of Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs), whereas no apparent decrease in the tested Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model was found. (2) RNN outperformed CNN using Mel-frequency cepstrum coefficients (MFCCs) as features. There was no difference between RNN models (LSTM, BiLSTM, GRU, or BiGRU). (3) Adding dynamic information (∆ and ∆²MFCCs) of the heart sound as a feature did not improve the RNNs' performance, and the improvement on CNN was also minimal (≤2.5% in MAcc). The findings provided a theoretical basis for further heart sound classification using deep learning techniques when selecting the input length.
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25
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Tariq Z, Shah SK, Lee Y. Feature-Based Fusion Using CNN for Lung and Heart Sound Classification. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22041521. [PMID: 35214424 PMCID: PMC8875944 DOI: 10.3390/s22041521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Lung or heart sound classification is challenging due to the complex nature of audio data, its dynamic properties of time, and frequency domains. It is also very difficult to detect lung or heart conditions with small amounts of data or unbalanced and high noise in data. Furthermore, the quality of data is a considerable pitfall for improving the performance of deep learning. In this paper, we propose a novel feature-based fusion network called FDC-FS for classifying heart and lung sounds. The FDC-FS framework aims to effectively transfer learning from three different deep neural network models built from audio datasets. The innovation of the proposed transfer learning relies on the transformation from audio data to image vectors and from three specific models to one fused model that would be more suitable for deep learning. We used two publicly available datasets for this study, i.e., lung sound data from ICHBI 2017 challenge and heart challenge data. We applied data augmentation techniques, such as noise distortion, pitch shift, and time stretching, dealing with some data issues in these datasets. Importantly, we extracted three unique features from the audio samples, i.e., Spectrogram, MFCC, and Chromagram. Finally, we built a fusion of three optimal convolutional neural network models by feeding the image feature vectors transformed from audio features. We confirmed the superiority of the proposed fusion model compared to the state-of-the-art works. The highest accuracy we achieved with FDC-FS is 99.1% with Spectrogram-based lung sound classification while 97% for Spectrogram and Chromagram based heart sound classification.
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26
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27
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Camara C, Peris-Lopez P, Safkhani M, Bagheri N. ECGsound for human identification. Biomed Signal Process Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2021.103335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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28
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Hassan SU, Mohd Zahid MS, Abdullah TAA, Husain K. Classification of cardiac arrhythmia using a convolutional neural network and bi-directional long short-term memory. Digit Health 2022; 8:20552076221102766. [PMID: 35656286 PMCID: PMC9152186 DOI: 10.1177/20552076221102766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiac arrhythmia is a leading cause of cardiovascular disease, with a high fatality rate worldwide. The timely diagnosis of cardiac arrhythmias, determined by irregular and fast heart rate, may help lower the risk of strokes. Electrocardiogram signals have been widely used to identify arrhythmias due to their non-invasive approach. However, the manual process is error-prone and time-consuming. A better alternative is to utilize deep learning models for early automatic identification of cardiac arrhythmia, thereby enhancing diagnosis and treatment. In this article, a novel deep learning model, combining convolutional neural network and bi-directional long short-term memory, is proposed for arrhythmia classification. Specifically, the classification comprises five different classes: non-ectopic (N), supraventricular ectopic (S), ventricular ectopic (V), fusion (F), and unknown (Q) beats. The proposed model is trained, validated, and tested using MIT-BIH and St-Petersburg data sets separately. Also, the performance was measured in terms of precision, accuracy, recall, specificity, and f1-score. The results show that the proposed model achieves training, validation, and testing accuracies of 100%, 98%, and 98%, respectively with the MIT-BIH data set. Lower accuracies were shown for the St-Petersburg data set. The performance of the proposed model based on the MIT-BIH data set is also compared with the performance of existing models based on the MIT-BIH data set.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahab Ul Hassan
- Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia
| | - Mohd S Mohd Zahid
- Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia
| | - Talal AA Abdullah
- Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia
| | - Khaleel Husain
- Institute of Health and Analytics, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia (Until August 2021)
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29
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Mei N, Wang H, Zhang Y, Liu F, Jiang X, Wei S. Classification of heart sounds based on quality assessment and wavelet scattering transform. Comput Biol Med 2021; 137:104814. [PMID: 34481179 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.104814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Automatic classification of heart sound plays an important role in the diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases. In this study, a heart sound sample classification method based on quality assessment and wavelet scattering transform was proposed. First, the ratio of zero crossings (RZC) and the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) were used for assessing the quality of heart sound signal. The first signal segment conforming to the threshold standard was selected as the current sample for the continuous heart sound signal. Using the wavelet scattering transform, the wavelet scattering coefficients were expanded according to the wavelet scale dimension, to obtain the features. Support vector machine (SVM) was used for classification, and the classification results for the samples were obtained using the wavelet scale dimension voting approach. The effects of RZC and RMSSD on the results are discussed in detail. On the database of PhysioNet Computing in Cardiology Challenge 2016 (CinC 2016), the proposed method yields 92.23% accuracy (Acc), 96.62% sensitivity (Se), 90.65% specificity (Sp), and 93.64% measure of accuracy (Macc). The results show that the proposed method can effectively classify normal and abnormal heart sound samples with high accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Mei
- School of Control Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Hongxia Wang
- School of Control Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yatao Zhang
- School of Mechanical, Electrical & Information Engineering, Shandong University, Weihai, China.
| | - Feifei Liu
- School of Science, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, China
| | - Xinge Jiang
- School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Shandong Jiaotong University, Jinan, China
| | - Shoushui Wei
- School of Control Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, China.
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30
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Mohd Yusof N, Muda AK, Pratama SF, Carbo-Dorca R. Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) drug classification using shallow one-dimensional convolutional neural network. Mol Divers 2021; 26:1609-1619. [PMID: 34338915 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-021-10289-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) drug analysis and identification are challenging and critical nowadays with the emergence production of new synthetic ATS drugs with sophisticated design compounds. In the present study, we proposed a one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1DCNN) model to perform ATS drug classification as an alternative method. We investigate as well as explore the classification behavior of 1DCNN with the utilization of the existing novel 3D molecular descriptors as ATS drugs representation to become the model input. The proposed 1DCNN model is composed of one convolutional layer to reduce the model complexity. Besides, pooling operation that is a standard part of traditional CNN is not applied in this architecture to have more features in the classification phase. The dropout regularization technique is employed to improve model generalization. Experiments were conducted to find the optimal values for three dominant hyper-parameters of the 1DCNN model which are the filter size, transfer function, and batch size. Our findings found that kernel size 11, exponential linear unit (ELU) transfer function and batch size 32 are optimal for the 1DCNN model. A comparison with several machine learning classifiers has shown that our proposed 1DCNN has achieved comparable performance with the Random Forest classifier and competitive performance with the others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norfadzlia Mohd Yusof
- Fakulti Teknologi Kejuruteraan Elektrik dan Elektronik, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Durian Tunggal, 76100, Melaka, Malaysia
| | - Azah Kamilah Muda
- Fakulti Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Durian Tunggal, 76100, Melaka, Malaysia.
| | - Satrya Fajri Pratama
- Fakulti Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Durian Tunggal, 76100, Melaka, Malaysia
| | - Ramon Carbo-Dorca
- Institut de Qu´ımica Computacional i Cata`lisi, Universitat de Girona, 17071, Girona, Catalonia, Spain
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31
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Chen W, Sun Q, Chen X, Xie G, Wu H, Xu C. Deep Learning Methods for Heart Sounds Classification: A Systematic Review. ENTROPY 2021; 23:e23060667. [PMID: 34073201 PMCID: PMC8229456 DOI: 10.3390/e23060667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The automated classification of heart sounds plays a significant role in the diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). With the recent introduction of medical big data and artificial intelligence technology, there has been an increased focus on the development of deep learning approaches for heart sound classification. However, despite significant achievements in this field, there are still limitations due to insufficient data, inefficient training, and the unavailability of effective models. With the aim of improving the accuracy of heart sounds classification, an in-depth systematic review and an analysis of existing deep learning methods were performed in the present study, with an emphasis on the convolutional neural network (CNN) and recurrent neural network (RNN) methods developed over the last five years. This paper also discusses the challenges and expected future trends in the application of deep learning to heart sounds classification with the objective of providing an essential reference for further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Chen
- Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China; (W.C.); (G.X.); (H.W.)
- School of Information Science and Technology, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China;
| | - Qiang Sun
- School of Information Science and Technology, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China;
- Correspondence: (Q.S.); (C.X.)
| | - Xiaomin Chen
- School of Information Science and Technology, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China;
| | - Gangcai Xie
- Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China; (W.C.); (G.X.); (H.W.)
| | - Huiqun Wu
- Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China; (W.C.); (G.X.); (H.W.)
| | - Chen Xu
- School of Information Science and Technology, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China;
- Correspondence: (Q.S.); (C.X.)
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Alkhodari M, Fraiwan L. Convolutional and recurrent neural networks for the detection of valvular heart diseases in phonocardiogram recordings. COMPUTER METHODS AND PROGRAMS IN BIOMEDICINE 2021; 200:105940. [PMID: 33494031 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2021.105940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Valvular heart diseases (VHD) are one of the major causes of cardiovascular diseases that are having high mortality rates worldwide. The early diagnosis of VHD prevents the development of cardiac diseases and allows for optimum medication. Despite of the ability of current gold standards in identifying VHD, they still lack the required accuracy and thus, several cases go misdiagnosed. In this vein, a study is conducted herein to investigate the efficiency of deep learning models in identifying VHD through phonocardiography (PCG) recordings. PCG heart sounds were obtained from an open-access data-set representing normal heart sounds along with four major VHD; namely aortic stenosis (AS), mitral stenosis (MS), mitral regurgitation (MR), and mitral valve prolapse (MVP). A total of 1,000 patients were involved in the study with 200 recordings for each class. All recordings were initially trimmed to have 9,600 samples ensuring their coverage of at least 1 cardiac cycle. In addition, they were pre-processed by applying maximal overlap discrete wavelet transform (MODWT) smoothing algorithm and z-score normalization. The neural network architecture was designed to reduce the complexity often found in literature and consisted of a combination of convolutional neural networks (CNN) and recurrent neural networks (RNN) based on Bi-directional long short-term memory (BiLSTM). The model was trained and tested following a k-fold cross-validation scheme of 10-folds utilizing the CNN-BiLSTM network as well as the CNN and BiLSTM, individually. The highest performance was achieved using the CNN-BiLSTM network with an overall Cohen's kappa, accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of 97.87%, 99.32%, 98.30%, and 99.58%, respectively. In addition, the model had an average area under the curve (AUC) of 0.998. Furthermore, the performance of the model was assessed on the PhysioNet/Computing in Cardiology 2016 challenge data-set and reached an overall accuracy of 87.31% with an AUC of 0.900. This study paves the way towards implementing deep learning models in VHD identification under clinical settings to assist clinicians in decision making and prevent many cases from cardiac abnormalities development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohanad Alkhodari
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Abu Dhabi University, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
| | - Luay Fraiwan
- Jordan University of Science and Technology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Irbid, Jordan.
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Zeng W, Lin Z, Yuan C, Wang Q, Liu F, Wang Y. Detection of heart valve disorders from PCG signals using TQWT, FA-MVEMD, Shannon energy envelope and deterministic learning. Artif Intell Rev 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10462-021-09969-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Abstract
Heart sounds play an important role in the initial screening of heart diseases. However, the accurate diagnosis with heart sound signals requires doctors to have many years of clinical experience and relevant professional knowledge. In this study, we proposed an end-to-end lightweight neural network model that does not require heart sound segmentation and has very few parameters. We segmented the original heart sound signal and performed a short-time Fourier transform (STFT) to obtain the frequency domain features. These features were sent to the improved two-dimensional convolutional neural network (CNN) model for features learning and classification. Considering the imbalance of positive and negative samples, we introduced FocalLoss as the loss function, verified our network model with multiple random verifications, and, hence, obtained a better classification result. Our main purpose is to design a lightweight network structure that is easy for hardware implementation. Compared with the results of the latest literature, our model only uses 4.29 K parameters, which is 1/10 of the size of the state-of-the-art work.
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Sawant NK, Patidar S, Nesaragi N, Acharya UR. Automated detection of abnormal heart sound signals using Fano-factor constrained tunable quality wavelet transform. Biocybern Biomed Eng 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbe.2020.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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36
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de Campos Souza PV, Lughofer E. Identification of Heart Sounds with an Interpretable Evolving Fuzzy Neural Network. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 20:E6477. [PMID: 33198426 PMCID: PMC7698187 DOI: 10.3390/s20226477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Heart problems are responsible for the majority of deaths worldwide. The use of intelligent techniques to assist in the identification of existing patterns in these diseases can facilitate treatments and decision making in the field of medicine. This work aims to extract knowledge from a dataset based on heart noise behaviors in order to determine whether heart murmur predilection exists or not in the analyzed patients. A heart murmur can be pathological due to defects in the heart, so the use of an evolving hybrid technique can assist in detecting this comorbidity team, and at the same time, extract knowledge through fuzzy linguistic rules, facilitating the understanding of the nature of the evaluated data. Heart disease detection tests were performed to compare the proposed hybrid model's performance with state of the art for the subject. The results obtained (90.75% accuracy) prove that in addition to great assertiveness in detecting heart murmurs, the evolving hybrid model could be concomitant with the extraction of knowledge from data submitted to an intelligent approach.
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Deperlioglu O, Kose U, Gupta D, Khanna A, Sangaiah AK. Diagnosis of heart diseases by a secure Internet of Health Things system based on Autoencoder Deep Neural Network. COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS 2020; 162:31-50. [PMID: 32843778 PMCID: PMC7434639 DOI: 10.1016/j.comcom.2020.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Objective of this study is to introduce a secure IoHT system, which acts as a clinical decision support system with the diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases. In this sense, it was emphasized that the accuracy rate of diagnosis (classification) can be improved via deep learning algorithms, by needing no hybrid-complex models, and a secure data processing can be achieved with a multi-authentication and Tangle based approach. In detail, heart sounds were classified with Autoencoder Neural Networks (AEN) and the IoHT system was built for supporting doctors in real-time. For developing the diagnosis infrastructure by the AEN, PASCAL B-Training and Physiobank-PhysioNet A-Training heart sound datasets were used accordingly. For the PASCAL dataset, the AEN provided a diagnosis-classification performance with the accuracy of 100%, sensitivity of 100%, and the specificity of 100% whereas the rates were respectively 99.8%, 99.65%, and 99.13% for the PhysioNet dataset. It was seen that the findings by the developed AEN based solution were better than the alternative solutions from the literature. Additionally, usability of the whole IoHT system was found positive by the doctors, and according to the 479 real-case applications, the system was able to achieve accuracy rates of 96.03% for normal heart sounds, 91.91% for extrasystole, and 90.11% for murmur. In terms of security approach, the system was also robust against several attacking methods including synthetic data impute as well as trying to penetrating to the system via central system or mobile devices.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Utku Kose
- Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey
| | - Deepak Gupta
- Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
| | - Ashish Khanna
- Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
| | - Arun Kumar Sangaiah
- School of Computing Science and Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
- Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
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Xu D, Wu Y. Improved YOLO-V3 with DenseNet for Multi-Scale Remote Sensing Target Detection. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20154276. [PMID: 32751868 PMCID: PMC7435986 DOI: 10.3390/s20154276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Remote sensing targets have different dimensions, and they have the characteristics of dense distribution and a complex background. This makes remote sensing target detection difficult. With the aim at detecting remote sensing targets at different scales, a new You Only Look Once (YOLO)-V3-based model was proposed. YOLO-V3 is a new version of YOLO. Aiming at the defect of poor performance of YOLO-V3 in detecting remote sensing targets, we adopted DenseNet (Densely Connected Network) to enhance feature extraction capability. Moreover, the detection scales were increased to four based on the original YOLO-V3. The experiment on RSOD (Remote Sensing Object Detection) dataset and UCS-AOD (Dataset of Object Detection in Aerial Images) dataset showed that our approach performed better than Faster-RCNN, SSD (Single Shot Multibox Detector), YOLO-V3, and YOLO-V3 tiny in terms of accuracy. Compared with original YOLO-V3, the mAP (mean Average Precision) of our approach increased from 77.10% to 88.73% in the RSOD dataset. In particular, the mAP of detecting targets like aircrafts, which are mainly made up of small targets increased by 12.12%. In addition, the detection speed was not significantly reduced. Generally speaking, our approach achieved higher accuracy and gave considerations to real-time performance simultaneously for remote sensing target detection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yiquan Wu
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-137-7666-7415
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Zeng W, Yuan J, Yuan C, Wang Q, Liu F, Wang Y. A new approach for the detection of abnormal heart sound signals using TQWT, VMD and neural networks. Artif Intell Rev 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10462-020-09875-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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40
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Altuve M, Suárez L, Ardila J. Fundamental heart sounds analysis using improved complete ensemble EMD with adaptive noise. Biocybern Biomed Eng 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbe.2019.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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