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Ferris CF. Rethinking the Conditions and Mechanism for Glymphatic Clearance. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:624690. [PMID: 33897347 PMCID: PMC8060639 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.624690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Critical studies that form the foundation of the glymphatic system and the clearance of metabolic by-products of unwanted proteins from the brain are reviewed. Concerns are raised about studying glymphatic flow in anesthetized animals and making assumptions about the whole brain based upon data collected from a cranial window on the cortex. A new model is proposed arguing that the flow of cerebral spinal fluid and parenchymal clearance in the perivascular system of unwanted proteins is regulated by circadian changes in brain temperature and blood flow at the level of the microvasculature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig F Ferris
- Department Psychology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Translational Neuroimaging, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
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2
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Schmidt KT, Schroeder JP, Foster SL, Squires K, Smith BM, Pitts EG, Epstein MP, Weinshenker D. Norepinephrine regulates cocaine-primed reinstatement via α1-adrenergic receptors in the medial prefrontal cortex. Neuropharmacology 2017; 119:134-140. [PMID: 28392265 PMCID: PMC5495469 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Revised: 03/15/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Drug-primed reinstatement of cocaine seeking in rats is thought to reflect relapse-like behavior and is mediated by the integration of signals from mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic projections and corticostriatal glutamatergic innervation. Cocaine-primed reinstatement can also be attenuated by systemic administration of dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) inhibitors, which prevent norepinephrine (NE) synthesis, or by α1-adrenergic receptor (α1AR) antagonists, indicating functional modulation by the noradrenergic system. In the present study, we sought to further discern the role of NE in cocaine-seeking behavior by determining whether α1AR activation can induce reinstatement on its own or is sufficient to permit cocaine-primed reinstatement in the absence of all other AR signaling, and identifying the neuroanatomical substrate within the mesocorticolimbic reward system harboring the critical α1ARs. We found that while intracerebroventricular infusion of the α1AR agonist phenylephrine did not induce reinstatement on its own, it did overcome the blockade of cocaine-primed reinstatement by the DBH inhibitor nepicastat. Furthermore, administration of the α1AR antagonist terazosin in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), but not the ventral tegmental area (VTA) or nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell, attenuated cocaine-primed reinstatement. Combined, these data indicate that α1AR activation in the mPFC is required for cocaine-primed reinstatement, and suggest that α1AR antagonists merit further investigation as pharmacotherapies for cocaine dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl T Schmidt
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Jason P Schroeder
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | | | - Katherine Squires
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Brilee M Smith
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Elizabeth G Pitts
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Michael P Epstein
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - David Weinshenker
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
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Sheng ZF, Cui XY, Cui SY, Yu B, Zhang XQ, Li SJ, Cao Q, Huang YL, Xu YP, Song JZ, Ding H, Lin ZG, Yang G, Zhang YH. Involvement of adrenoceptors, dopamine receptors and AMPA receptors in antidepressant-like action of 7-O-ethylfangchinoline in mice. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2015; 36:949-56. [PMID: 26238289 DOI: 10.1038/aps.2015.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM 7-O-ethylfangchinoline (YH-200) is a bisbenzylisoquinoline derivative. The aim of this study was to investigate the antidepressant-like action and underlying mechanisms of YH-200 in mice. METHODS Mice were treated with YH-200 (15, 30, and 60 mg/kg, ig) or tetrandrine (30 and 60 mg/kg, ig) before conducting forced swimming test (FST), tail suspension test (TST), or open field test (OFT). RESULTS YH-200 (60 mg/kg) significantly decreased the immobility time in both FST and TST, and prolonged the latency to immobility in FST. YH-200 (60 mg/kg) was more potent than the natural bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid tetrandrine (60 mg/kg) in FST. Pretreatment with α1-adrenoceptor antagonist prazosin (1 mg/kg), β-adrenoceptor antagonist propranolol (2 mg/kg), dopamine D1/D5 receptor antagonist SCH23390 (0.05 mg/kg), dopamine D2/D3 receptor antagonist haloperidol (0.2 mg/kg) or AMPA receptor antagonist NBQX (10 mg/kg) prevented the antidepressant-like action of YH-200 (60 mg/kg) in FST. In contrast, pretreatment with α2 adrenoceptor antagonist yohimbine (1 mg/kg) augmented the antidepressant-like action of YH-200 (30 mg/kg) in FST. Chronic administration of YH-200 (30 and 60 mg/kg for 14 d) did not produce drug tolerance; instead its antidepressant-like action was strengthened. Chronic administration of YH-200 did not affect the body weight of mice compared to control mice. CONCLUSION YH-200 exerts its antidepressant-like action in mice via acting at multi-targets, including α1, α2 and β-adrenoceptors, D1/D5 and D2 /D3 receptors, as well as AMPA receptors.
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Synthesis and biological activities of 2-[(heteroaryl)methyl]imidazolines. Bioorg Med Chem 2012; 20:108-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2011.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2011] [Revised: 11/12/2011] [Accepted: 11/14/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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Lin Y, Sarfraz Y, Jensen A, Dunn AJ, Stone EA. Participation of brainstem monoaminergic nuclei in behavioral depression. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 100:330-9. [PMID: 21893082 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2011] [Revised: 08/16/2011] [Accepted: 08/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Several lines of research have now suggested the controversial hypothesis that the central noradrenergic system acts to exacerbate depression as opposed to having an antidepressant function. If correct, lesions of this system should increase resistance to depression, which has been partially but weakly supported by previous studies. The present study reexamined this question using two more recent methods to lesion noradrenergic neurons in mice: intraventricular (ivt) administration of either the noradrenergic neurotoxin, DSP4, or of a dopamine-β-hydroxylase-saporin immunotoxin (DBH-SAP ITX) prepared for mice. Both agents given 2 weeks prior were found to significantly increase resistance to depressive behavior in several tests including acute and repeated forced swims, tail suspension and endotoxin-induced anhedonia. Both agents also increased locomotor activity in the open field. Cell counts of brainstem monoaminergic neurons, however, showed that both methods produced only partial lesions of the locus coeruleus and also affected the dorsal raphe or ventral tegmental area. Both the cell damage and the antidepressant and hyperactive effects of ivt DSP4 were prevented by a prior i.p. injection of the NE uptake blocker, reboxetine. The results are seen to be consistent with recent pharmacological experiments showing that noradrenergic and serotonergic systems function to inhibit active behavior. Comparison with previous studies utilizing more complete and selective LC lesions suggest that mouse strain, lesion size or involvement of multiple neuronal systems are critical variables in the behavioral and affective effects of monoaminergic lesions and that antidepressant effects and hyperactivity may be more likely to occur if lesions are partial and/or involve multiple monoaminergic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Lin
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone School of Medicine, 550 First Ave, New York, NY 10016, United States
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The role of the central noradrenergic system in behavioral inhibition. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 67:193-208. [PMID: 21315760 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2011.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2010] [Revised: 01/30/2011] [Accepted: 02/03/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Although the central noradrenergic system has been shown to be involved in a number of behavioral and neurophysiological processes, the relation of these to its role in depressive illness has been difficult to define. The present review discusses the hypothesis that one of its chief functions that may be related to affective illness is the inhibition of behavioral activation, a prominent symptom of the disorder. This hypothesis is found to be consistent with most previous neuropsychopharmacological and immunohistochemical experiments on active behavior in rodents in a variety of experimental conditions using manipulation of neurotransmission at both locus coeruleus and forebrain adrenergic receptors. The findings support a mechanism in which high rates of noradrenergic neural activity suppress the neural activity of principal neurons in forebrain regions mediating active behavior. The suppression may be mediated through postsynaptic galaninergic and adrenergic receptors, and via the release of corticotrophin-releasing hormone. The hypothesis is consistent with clinical evidence for central noradrenergic system hyperactivity in depressives and with the view that this hyperactivity is a contributing etiological factor in the disorder. A similar mechanism may underlie the ability of the noradrenergic system to suppress seizure activity suggesting that inhibition of the spread of neural activation may be a unifying function.
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Dziedzicka-Wasylewska M, Faron-Górecka A, Kuśmider M, Drozdowska E, Rogóz Z, Siwanowicz J, Caron MG, Bönisch H. Effect of antidepressant drugs in mice lacking the norepinephrine transporter. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 31:2424-32. [PMID: 16554743 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
One of the main theories concerning the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs (ADs) is based on the notion that the neurochemical background of depression involves an impairment of central noradrenergic transmission with a concomitant decrease of the norepinephrine (NE) in the synaptic gap. Many ADs increase synaptic NE availability by inhibition of the reuptake of NE. Using mice lacking NE transporter (NET-/-) we examined their baseline phenotype as well as the response in the forced swim test (FST) and in the tail suspension test (TST) upon treatment with ADs that display different pharmacological profiles. In both tests, the NET-/- mice behaved like wild-type (WT) mice acutely treated with ADs. Autoradiographic studies showed decreased binding of the beta-adrenergic ligand [3H]CGP12177 in the cerebral cortex of NET-/- mice, indicating the changes at the level of beta-adrenergic receptors similar to those obtained with ADs treatment. The binding of [3H]prazosin to alpha1-adrenergic receptors in the cerebral cortex of NET-/- mice was also decreased, most probably as an adaptive response to the sustained elevation of extracellular NE levels observed in these mice. A pronounced NET knockout-induced shortening of the immobility time in the TST (by ca 50%) compared to WT mice was not reduced any further by NET-inhibiting ADs such as reboxetine, desipramine, and imipramine. Citalopram, which is devoid of affinity for the NET, exerted a significant reduction of immobility time in the NET-/- mice. In the FST, reboxetine, desipramine, imipramine, and citalopram administered acutely did not reduce any further the immobility time shortened by NET knockout itself (ca 25%); however, antidepressant-like action of repeatedly (7 days) administered desipramine was observed in NET-/- mice, indicating that the chronic presence of this drug may also affect other neurochemical targets involved in the behavioral reactions monitored by this test. From the present study, it may be concluded that mice lacking the NET may represent a good model of some aspects of depression-resistant behavior, paralleled with alterations in the expression of adrenergic receptors, which result as an adaptation to elevated levels of extracellular NE.
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Stone EA, Quartermain D, Lin Y, Lehmann ML. Central alpha1-adrenergic system in behavioral activity and depression. Biochem Pharmacol 2006; 73:1063-75. [PMID: 17097068 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2006.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2006] [Revised: 09/27/2006] [Accepted: 10/02/2006] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Central alpha(1)-adrenoceptors are activated by norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine (EPI) and possibly dopamine (DA), and function in two fundamental and opposed types of behavior: (1) positively motivated exploratory and approach activities, and (2) stress reactions and behavioral inhibition. Brain microinjection studies have revealed that the positive-linked receptors are located in eight to nine brain regions spanning the neuraxis including the secondary motor cortex, piriform cortex, nucleus accumbens, preoptic area, lateral hypothalamic area, vermis cerebellum, locus coeruleus, dorsal raphe and possibly the C1 nucleus of the ventrolateral medulla, whereas the stress-linked receptors are present in at least three areas including the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, central nucleus of the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Recent studies utilizing c-fos expression and mitogen-activated protein kinase activation have shown that various diverse models of depression in mice produce decreases in positive region-neural activity elicited by motivating stimuli along with increases in neural activity of stress areas. Both types of change are attenuated by various antidepressant agents. This has suggested that the balance of the two networks determines whether an animal displays depressive behavior. A central unresolved question concerns how the alpha(1)-receptors in the positive-activity and stress systems are differentially activated during the appropriate behavioral conditions and to what extent this is related to differences in endogenous ligands or receptor subtype distributions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric A Stone
- New York University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, NYU Medical Center, MHL HN510, 550 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA.
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Knox D, Sarter M, Berntson GG. Visceral Afferent Bias on Cortical Processing: Role of Adrenergic Afferents to the Basal Forebrain Cholinergic System. Behav Neurosci 2004; 118:1455-9. [PMID: 15598156 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.118.6.1455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Intraperitoneal epinephrine enhances the cerebral auditory evoked potential (AEP), an effect that is dependent on the basal forebrain cortical cholinergic system. The present study examined the hypothesis that ascending noradrenergic projections from brainstem autonomic substrates to the basal forebrain cholinergic system represent an essential component of the ascending pathway mediating this effect of epinephrine. Epinephrine again enhanced the AEP in rats, and this effect was attenuated by infusion of the selective alpha1 adrenergic antagonist terazosin into the basal forebrain. Moreover, infusions of the selective alpha1 adrenergic agonist phenylephrine into the basal forebrain mimicked the priming effects of epinephrine. Results support the hypothesis that noradrenergic afferents to the basal forebrain cholinergic system represent a component of an ascending visceral afferent system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dayan Knox
- Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43120, USA
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Stone EA, Lin Y, Ahsan R, Quartermain D. Role of locus coeruleus ?1-adrenoceptors in motor activity in rats. Synapse 2004; 54:164-72. [PMID: 15452865 DOI: 10.1002/syn.20074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The question of whether or not the locus coeruleus (LC) participates in the control of motor activity has been controversial due to difficulties in demonstrating permanent motor deficits after neurotoxic lesions of this nucleus or of the dorsal noradrenergic bundle (DNB). In the present experiments it was shown in rats that acute local blockade (with terazosin) or stimulation (with phenylephrine) of LC alpha(1)-adrenoceptors respectively blocked or stimulated exploratory behavior in a novel cage and the home cage. Moreover, previous lesion of the DNB by i.p. DSP4 abolished the behavioral changes to local LC alpha(1)-receptor manipulation but did not affect motor activity in the novel or home cage by itself. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the intact LC does contribute to motor activity control, exerted in part by its alpha(1)-receptors; however, the permanent loss of this nucleus is compensated for by remaining CNS motor structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric A Stone
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016, USA.
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