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Nowling D, Crum KI, Joseph J. Sex differences in development of functional connections in the face processing network. J Neuroimaging 2024; 34:280-290. [PMID: 38169075 PMCID: PMC10939922 DOI: 10.1111/jon.13185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Understanding sex differences in typical development of the face processing network is important for elucidating disruptions during atypical development in sex-linked developmental disorders like autism spectrum disorder. Based on prior sex difference studies in other cognitive domains, this study examined whether females show increased integration of core and extended face regions with age for face viewing, while males would show increased segregation. METHODS This study used a cross-sectional design with typically developing children and adults (n = 133) and a functional MRI face localizer task. Psychophysiological interaction (PPI) analysis examined functional connectivity between canonical and extended face processing network regions with age, with greater segregation indexed by decreased core-extended region connectivity with age and greater integration indexed by increased core-extended region connectivity with age. RESULTS PPI analysis confirmed increased segregation for males-right fusiform face area (FFA) coupling to right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) opercular when viewing faces and left amygdala when viewing objects decreased with age. Females showed increased integration with age (increased coupling of the right FFA to right IFG opercular region and right occipital face area [OFA] to right IFG orbital when viewing faces and objects, respectively) and increased segregation (decreased coupling with age of the right OFA with IFG opercular region when viewing faces). CONCLUSIONS Development of core and extended face processing network connectivity follows sexually dimorphic paths. These differential changes mostly occur across childhood and adolescence, with males experiencing segregation and females both segregation and integration changes in connectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duncan Nowling
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
| | - Kathleen I. Crum
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
- Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN
| | - Jane Joseph
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
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2
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Lesinger K, Rosenthal G, Pierce K, Courchesne E, Dinstein I, Avidan G. Functional connectivity of the human face network exhibits right hemispheric lateralization from infancy to adulthood. Sci Rep 2023; 13:20831. [PMID: 38012206 PMCID: PMC10682179 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-47581-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Adults typically exhibit right hemispheric dominance in the processing of faces. In this cross-sectional study, we investigated age-dependent changes in face processing lateralization from infancy to adulthood (1-48 years old; N = 194). We co-registered anatomical and resting state functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) scans of toddlers, children, adolescents, and adults into a common space and examined functional connectivity across the face, as well as place, and object-selective regions identified in adults. As expected, functional connectivity between core face-selective regions was stronger in the right compared to the left hemisphere in adults. Most importantly, the same lateralization was evident in all other age groups (infants, children, adolescents) and appeared only in face-selective regions, and not in place or object-selective regions. These findings suggest that the physiological development of face-selective brain areas may differ from that of object and place-selective areas. Specifically, the functional connectivity of the core-face selective regions exhibits rightward lateralization from infancy, years before these areas develop mature face-selective responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keren Lesinger
- Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, POB 653, 8410501, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Gideon Rosenthal
- Department of Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, POB 653, 8410501, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Karen Pierce
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - Eric Courchesne
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - Ilan Dinstein
- Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, POB 653, 8410501, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Galia Avidan
- Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, POB 653, 8410501, Beer Sheva, Israel.
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3
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Trujillo LT, Anderson EM. Facial typicality and attractiveness reflect an ideal dimension of face structure. Cogn Psychol 2023; 140:101541. [PMID: 36587465 PMCID: PMC9899519 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2022.101541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Face perception and recognition are important processes for social interaction and communication among humans, so understanding how faces are mentally represented and processed has major implications. At the same time, faces are just some of the many stimuli that we encounter in our everyday lives. Therefore, more general theories of how we represent objects might also apply to faces. Contemporary research on the mental representation of faces has centered on two competing theoretical frameworks that arose from more general categorization research: prototype-based face representation and exemplar-based face representation. Empirically distinguishing between these frameworks is difficult and neither one has been ruled out. In this paper, we advance this area of research in three ways. First, we introduce two additional frameworks for mental representation of categories, varying abstraction and ideal representation, which have not been applied to face perception and recognition before. Second, we fit formal computational models of all four of these theories to human perceptual judgments of the typicality and attractiveness (a strong correlate of typicality) of 100 young adult Caucasian female faces, with the models expressed within a face space derived from facial similarity judgments via multidimensional scaling. Third, we predict the perceived typicality and attractiveness of the faces using these models and compare the predictive performance of each to the empirical data. We found that of all four models, the ideal representation model provided the best account of perceived typicality and attractiveness for the present set of faces, although all models showed discrepancies from the empirical data. These findings demonstrate the relevance of mental categorization processes for representing faces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Logan T Trujillo
- Department of Psychology, UAC 253, Texas State University, 601 University Dr., San Marcos TX 78666, USA.
| | - Erin M Anderson
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, 108 E. Dean Keeton St., Austin, TX 78712, USA.
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4
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Qing T, Chen J, Xue L, Tan Y, Huang Z, Yang S, Chen Y, Wang J, Zou Q, Lv Y, Zhao J. Decreasing integration within face network and segregation beyond the face network in the aging brain. Psych J 2022; 11:448-459. [PMID: 35599334 DOI: 10.1002/pchj.560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tianying Qing
- Center for Cognition and Brain Disorders The Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Institute of Psychological Science Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Research in Assessment of Cognitive Impairments Zhejiang China
| | - Jing Chen
- Center for Cognition and Brain Disorders The Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Institute of Psychological Science Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Research in Assessment of Cognitive Impairments Zhejiang China
| | - Licheng Xue
- Institute for Brain Research and Rehabilitation, Center for Studies of Psychological Application South China Normal University Guangzhou China
| | - Yufei Tan
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive Aix‐Marseille Université and CNRS Marseille France
| | - Zehao Huang
- Center for Cognition and Brain Disorders The Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Institute of Psychological Science Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Research in Assessment of Cognitive Impairments Zhejiang China
| | - Shimeng Yang
- Center for Cognition and Brain Disorders The Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Institute of Psychological Science Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Research in Assessment of Cognitive Impairments Zhejiang China
| | - Yuqiu Chen
- Center for Cognition and Brain Disorders The Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Institute of Psychological Science Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Research in Assessment of Cognitive Impairments Zhejiang China
| | - Jinhui Wang
- Institute for Brain Research and Rehabilitation, Center for Studies of Psychological Application South China Normal University Guangzhou China
| | - Qihong Zou
- Center for MRI Research, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies Peking University Beijing China
| | - Yating Lv
- Center for Cognition and Brain Disorders The Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Institute of Psychological Science Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Research in Assessment of Cognitive Impairments Zhejiang China
| | - Jing Zhao
- Center for Cognition and Brain Disorders The Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Institute of Psychological Science Hangzhou Normal University Zhejiang China
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Research in Assessment of Cognitive Impairments Zhejiang China
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Developmental Differences in Neuromagnetic Cortical Activation and Phase Synchrony Elicited by Scenes with Faces during Movie Watching. eNeuro 2022; 9:ENEURO.0494-21.2022. [PMID: 35443990 PMCID: PMC9087730 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0494-21.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural underpinnings of humans’ ability to process faces and how it changes over typical development have been extensively studied using paradigms where face stimuli are oversimplified, isolated, and decontextualized. The prevalence of this approach, however, has resulted in limited knowledge of face processing in ecologically valid situations, in which faces are accompanied by contextual information at multiple time scales. In the present study, we use a naturalistic movie paradigm to investigate how neuromagnetic activation and phase synchronization elicited by faces from movie scenes in humans differ between children and adults. We used MEG data from 22 adults (6 females, 3 left handed; mean age, 27.7 ± 5.28 years) and 20 children (7 females, 1 left handed; mean age, 9.5 ± 1.52 years) collected during movie viewing. We investigated neuromagnetic time-locked activation and phase synchronization elicited by movie scenes containing faces in contrast to other movie scenes. Statistical differences between groups were tested using a multivariate data-driven approach. Our results revealed lower face-elicited activation and theta/alpha phase synchrony between 120 and 330 ms in children compared with adults. Reduced connectivity in children was observed between the primary visual areas as well as their connections with higher-order frontal and parietal cortical areas. This is the first study to map neuromagnetic developmental changes in face processing in a time-locked manner using a naturalistic movie paradigm. It supports and extends the existing evidence of core face-processing network maturation accompanied by the development of an extended system of higher-order cortical areas engaged in face processing.
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Murray T, O’Brien J, Sagiv N, Kumari V. Changes in functional connectivity associated with facial expression processing over the working adult lifespan. Cortex 2022; 151:211-223. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2022.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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7
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Feng Y, Collignon O, Maurer D, Yao K, Gao X. Brief Postnatal Visual Deprivation Triggers Long-Lasting Interactive Structural and Functional Reorganization of the Human Cortex. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8:752021. [PMID: 34869446 PMCID: PMC8635780 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.752021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients treated for bilateral congenital cataracts provide a unique model to test the role of early visual input in shaping the development of the human cortex. Previous studies showed that brief early visual deprivation triggers long-lasting changes in the human visual cortex. However, it remains unknown if such changes interact with the development of other parts of the cortex. With high-resolution structural and resting-state fMRI images, we found changes in cortical thickness within, but not limited to, the visual cortex in adult patients, who experienced transient visual deprivation early in life as a result of congenital cataracts. Importantly, the covariation of cortical thickness across regions was also altered in the patients. The areas with altered cortical thickness in patients also showed differences in functional connectivity between patients and normally sighted controls. Together, the current findings suggest an impact of early visual deprivation on the interactive development of the human cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixuan Feng
- Eye Center of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Zhejiang Provincial Key Lab of Ophthalmology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Olivier Collignon
- Institute of Research in Psychology/Institute of Neuroscience, University of Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.,Centro Interdipartimentale Mente/Cervello, Università di Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Daphne Maurer
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ke Yao
- Eye Center of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Zhejiang Provincial Key Lab of Ophthalmology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoqing Gao
- Center for Psychological Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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8
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Similarity and stability of face network across populations and throughout adolescence and adulthood. Neuroimage 2021; 244:118587. [PMID: 34560271 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to extract cues from faces is fundamental for social animals, including humans. An individual's profile of functional connectivity across a face network can be shaped by common organizing principles, stable individual traits, and time-varying mental states. In the present study, we used data obtained with functional magnetic resonance imaging in two cohorts, IMAGEN (N = 534) and ALSPAC (N = 465), to investigate - both at group and individual levels - the consistency of the regional profile of functional connectivity across populations (IMAGEN, ALSPAC) and time (Visits 1 to 3 in IMAGEN; age 14 to 22 years). At the group level, we found a robust canonical profile of connectivity both across populations and time. At the individual level, connectivity profiles deviated from the canonical profile, and the magnitude of this deviation related to the presence of psychopathology. These findings suggest that the brain processes faces in a highly stereotypical manner, and that the deviations from this normative pattern may be related to the risk of mental illness.
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9
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Atypical development of emotional face processing networks in autism spectrum disorder from childhood through to adulthood. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2021; 51:101003. [PMID: 34416703 PMCID: PMC8377538 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2021.101003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
MEG connectivity to emotional faces in ASD and typical controls 6–39 years of age was investigated. Distinct age-related changes in connectivity were observed in the groups to happy and angry faces. Age-related between-group differences in functional connectivity were found in gamma band. Emotion-specific age-related between-group differences were seen in beta. Findings highlight specific neurodevelopmental trajectories to emotional faces in ASD vs. TD.
Impairments in social functioning are hallmarks of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and atypical functional connectivity may underlie these difficulties. Emotion processing networks typically undergo protracted maturational changes, however, those with ASD show either hyper- or hypo-connectivity with little consensus on the functional connectivity underpinning emotion processing. Magnetoencephalography was used to investigate age-related changes in whole-brain functional connectivity of eight regions of interest during happy and angry face processing in 190 children, adolescents and adults (6–39 years) with and without ASD. Findings revealed age-related changes from child- through to mid-adulthood in functional connectivity in controls and in ASD in theta, as well as age-related between-group differences across emotions, with connectivity decreasing in ASD, but increasing for controls, in gamma. Greater connectivity to angry faces was observed across groups in gamma. Emotion-specific age-related between-group differences in beta were also found, that showed opposite trends with age for happy and angry in ASD. Our results establish altered, frequency-specific developmental trajectories of functional connectivity in ASD, across distributed networks and a broad age range, which may finally help explain the heterogeneity in the literature.
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10
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Avidan G, Behrmann M. Spatial Integration in Normal Face Processing and Its Breakdown in Congenital Prosopagnosia. Annu Rev Vis Sci 2021; 7:301-321. [PMID: 34014762 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-vision-113020-012740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Congenital prosopagnosia (CP), a life-long impairment in face processing that occurs in the absence of any apparent brain damage, provides a unique model in which to explore the psychological and neural bases of normal face processing. The goal of this review is to offer a theoretical and conceptual framework that may account for the underlying cognitive and neural deficits in CP. This framework may also provide a novel perspective in which to reconcile some conflicting results that permits the expansion of the research in this field in new directions. The crux of this framework lies in linking the known behavioral and neural underpinnings of face processing and their impairments in CP to a model incorporating grid cell-like activity in the entorhinal cortex. Moreover, it stresses the involvement of active, spatial scanning of the environment with eye movements and implicates their critical role in face encoding and recognition. To begin with, we describe the main behavioral and neural characteristics of CP, and then lay down the building blocks of our proposed model, referring to the existing literature supporting this new framework. We then propose testable predictions and conclude with open questions for future research stemming from this model. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Vision Science, Volume 7 is September 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galia Avidan
- Department of Psychology and Department of Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel;
| | - Marlene Behrmann
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
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11
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Representational similarity analysis reveals atypical age-related changes in brain regions supporting face and car recognition in autism. Neuroimage 2020; 209:116322. [PMID: 31786166 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is associated with atypical activation in the ventral stream during face processing. The current study further characterizes the development of face processing in ASD using a multivoxel pattern analysis, which assesses the similarity in the representation of exemplars from the same category. METHODS Ninety-two children, adolescents and adults - with and without ASD - performed the Cambridge Face Memory Test, the Australian Face Memory Test, and a matched car memory test. Regions of interest during these tasks included Fusiform Face Area (FFA), based on the literature, and additional, structurally-defined regions in the ventral stream. Group differences in the patterns of activity within these ROIs when memorizing exemplars were examined using a representational similarity analysis (RSA). RESULTS The RSA revealed significant interactions between age group and diagnostic group in R FFA, with increasing similarity within a category (faces, cars) into adulthood typically but not in those with ASD. This pattern was also evident in structurally defined ventral stream regions, namely L inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), bilateral temporoparietal junction (TPJ), L inferior temporal lobule, and the R fusiform gyrus. CONCLUSIONS The specialization of face and object processing from adolescence to adulthood evident in typical development may be impaired in ASD, undermining the ability to reach adult-level visual processing in those with ASD.
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12
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Connectivity at the origins of domain specificity in the cortical face and place networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:6163-6169. [PMID: 32123077 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1911359117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well established that the adult brain contains a mosaic of domain-specific networks. But how do these domain-specific networks develop? Here we tested the hypothesis that the brain comes prewired with connections that precede the development of domain-specific function. Using resting-state fMRI in the youngest sample of newborn humans tested to date, we indeed found that cortical networks that will later develop strong face selectivity (including the "proto" occipital face area and fusiform face area) and scene selectivity (including the "proto" parahippocampal place area and retrosplenial complex) by adulthood, already show domain-specific patterns of functional connectivity as early as 27 d of age (beginning as early as 6 d of age). Furthermore, we asked how these networks are functionally connected to early visual cortex and found that the proto face network shows biased functional connectivity with foveal V1, while the proto scene network shows biased functional connectivity with peripheral V1. Given that faces are almost always experienced at the fovea, while scenes always extend across the entire periphery, these differential inputs may serve to facilitate domain-specific processing in each network after that function develops, or even guide the development of domain-specific function in each network in the first place. Taken together, these findings reveal domain-specific and eccentricity-biased connectivity in the earliest days of life, placing new constraints on our understanding of the origins of domain-specific cortical networks.
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Jones RG, Briggs RG, Conner AK, Bonney PA, Fletcher LR, Ahsan SA, Chakraborty AR, Nix CE, Jacobs CC, Lack AM, Griffin DT, Teo C, Sughrue ME. Measuring graphical strength within the connectome: A neuroanatomic, parcellation-based study. J Neurol Sci 2020; 408:116529. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2019.116529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Cohen AL, Soussand L, Corrow SL, Martinaud O, Barton JJS, Fox MD. Looking beyond the face area: lesion network mapping of prosopagnosia. Brain 2019; 142:3975-3990. [PMID: 31740940 PMCID: PMC6906597 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awz332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Revised: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Damage to the right fusiform face area can disrupt the ability to recognize faces, a classic example of how damage to a specialized brain region can disrupt a specialized brain function. However, similar symptoms can arise from damage to other brain regions, and face recognition is now thought to depend on a distributed brain network. The extent of this network and which regions are critical for facial recognition remains unclear. Here, we derive this network empirically based on lesion locations causing clinically significant impairments in facial recognition. Cases of acquired prosopagnosia were identified through a systematic literature search and lesion locations were mapped to a common brain atlas. The network of brain regions connected to each lesion location was identified using resting state functional connectivity from healthy participants (n = 1000), a technique termed lesion network mapping. Lesion networks were overlapped to identify connections common to lesions causing prosopagnosia. Reproducibility was assessed using split-half replication. Specificity was assessed through comparison with non-specific control lesions (n = 135) and with control lesions associated with symptoms other than prosopagnosia (n = 155). Finally, we tested whether our facial recognition network derived from clinically evident cases of prosopagnosia could predict subclinical facial agnosia in an independent lesion cohort (n = 31). Our systematic literature search identified 44 lesions causing prosopagnosia, only 29 of which intersected the right fusiform face area. However, all 44 lesion locations fell within a single brain network defined by connectivity to the right fusiform face area. Less consistent connectivity was found to other face-selective regions. Surprisingly, all 44 lesion locations were also functionally connected, through negative correlation, with regions in the left frontal cortex. This connectivity pattern was highly reproducible and specific to lesions causing prosopagnosia. Positive connectivity to the right fusiform face area and negative connectivity to left frontal regions were independent predictors of prosopagnosia and predicted subclinical facial agnosia in an independent lesion cohort. We conclude that lesions causing prosopagnosia localize to a single functionally connected brain network defined by connectivity to the right fusiform face area and to left frontal regions. Implications of these findings for models of facial recognition deficits are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander L Cohen
- Department of Neurology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Berenson-Allen Center for Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation and Division of Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Computational Radiology Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Louis Soussand
- Berenson-Allen Center for Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation and Division of Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Olivier Martinaud
- Department of Neurology Neuropsychology and Imaging of Human Memory, Caen-Normandy University, PSL Research University, EPHE, INSERM, Caen University Hospital, Caen, France
| | - Jason J S Barton
- Departments of Medicine (Neurology), Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Psychology, University of British Columbia, Canada
| | - Michael D Fox
- Berenson-Allen Center for Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation and Division of Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Athinoula A. Martinos Centre for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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15
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Wang X, Zhu Q, Song Y, Liu J. Developmental Reorganization of the Core and Extended Face Networks Revealed by Global Functional Connectivity. Cereb Cortex 2019; 28:3521-3530. [PMID: 28968833 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhx217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Prior studies on development of functional specialization in human brain mainly focus on age-related increases in regional activation and connectivity among regions. However, a few recent studies on the face network demonstrate age-related decrease in face-specialized activation in the extended face network (EFN), in addition to increase in activation in the core face network (CFN). Here we used a voxel-based global brain connectivity approach to investigate whether development of the face network exhibited both increase and decrease in network connectivity. We found the voxel-wise resting-state functional connectivity (FC) within the CFN increased with age in bilateral posterior superior temporal sulcus, suggesting the integration of the CFN during development. Interestingly, the FC of the voxels in the EFN to the right fusiform face area and occipital face area decreased with age, suggesting that the CFN segregated from the EFN during development. Moreover, the age-related connectivity in the CFN was related to behavioral performance in face processing. Overall, our study demonstrated developmental reorganization of the face network achieved by both integration within the CFN and segregation of the CFN from the EFN, which may account for the simultaneous increases and decreases in neural activation during the development of the face network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yiying Song
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Jia Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology & National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education (Beijing Normal University), Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
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16
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Li R, Utevsky AV, Huettel SA, Braams BR, Peters S, Crone EA, van Duijvenvoorde ACK. Developmental Maturation of the Precuneus as a Functional Core of the Default Mode Network. J Cogn Neurosci 2019; 31:1506-1519. [PMID: 31112473 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Efforts to map the functional architecture of the developing human brain have shown that connectivity between and within functional neural networks changes from childhood to adulthood. Although prior work has established that the adult precuneus distinctively modifies its connectivity during task versus rest states [Utevsky, A. V., Smith, D. V., & Huettel, S. A. Precuneus is a functional core of the default-mode network. Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 932-940, 2014], it remains unknown how these connectivity patterns emerge over development. Here, we use fMRI data collected at two longitudinal time points from over 250 participants between the ages of 8 and 26 years engaging in two cognitive tasks and a resting-state scan. By applying independent component analysis to both task and rest data, we identified three canonical networks of interest-the rest-based default mode network and the task-based left and right frontoparietal networks (LFPN and RFPN, respectively)-which we explored for developmental changes using dual regression analyses. We found systematic state-dependent functional connectivity in the precuneus, such that engaging in a task (compared with rest) resulted in greater precuneus-LFPN and precuneus-RFPN connectivity, whereas being at rest (compared with task) resulted in greater precuneus-default mode network connectivity. These cross-sectional results replicated across both tasks and at both developmental time points. Finally, we used longitudinal mixed models to show that the degree to which precuneus distinguishes between task and rest states increases with age, due to age-related increasing segregation between precuneus and LFPN at rest. Our results highlight the distinct role of the precuneus in tracking processing state, in a manner that is both present throughout and strengthened across development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Sabine Peters
- Leiden University.,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition
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17
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Elbich DB, Molenaar PCM, Scherf KS. Evaluating the organizational structure and specificity of network topology within the face processing system. Hum Brain Mapp 2019; 40:2581-2595. [PMID: 30779256 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.24546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
There is increasing appreciation that network-level interactions among regions produce components of face processing previously ascribed to individual regions. Our goals were to use an exhaustive data-driven approach to derive and quantify the topology of directed functional connections within a priori defined nodes of the face processing network and evaluate whether the topology is category-specific. Young adults were scanned with fMRI as they viewed movies of faces, objects, and scenes. We employed GIMME to model effective connectivity among core and extended face processing regions, which allowed us to evaluate all possible directional connections, under each viewing condition (face, object, place). During face processing, we observed directional connections from the right posterior superior temporal sulcus to both the right occipital face area and right fusiform face area (FFA), which does not reflect the topology reported in prior studies. We observed connectivity between core and extended regions during face processing, but this limited to a feed-forward connection from the FFA to the amygdala. Finally, the topology of connections was unique to face processing. These findings suggest that the pattern of directed functional connections within the face processing network, particularly in the right core regions, may not be as hierarchical and feed-forward as described previously. Our findings support the notion that topologies of network connections are specialized, emergent, and dynamically responsive to task demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Elbich
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - Peter C M Molenaar
- Department of Health & Human Development, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - K Suzanne Scherf
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
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18
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Joseph JE, Vanderweyen D, Swearingen J, Vaughan BK, Novo D, Zhu X, Gebregziabher M, Bonilha L, Bhatt R, Naselaris T, Dean B. Tracking the Development of Functional Connectomes for Face Processing. Brain Connect 2018; 9:231-239. [PMID: 30489152 DOI: 10.1089/brain.2018.0607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Face processing capacities become more specialized and advanced during development, but neural underpinnings of these processes are not fully understood. The present study applied graph theory-based network analysis to task-negative (resting blocks) and task-positive (viewing faces) functional magnetic resonance imaging data in children (5-17 years) and adults (18-42 years) to test the hypothesis that the development of a specialized network for face processing is driven by task-positive processing (face viewing) more than by task-negative processing (visual fixation) and by both progressive and regressive changes in network properties. Predictive modeling was used to predict age from node-based network properties derived from task-positive and task-negative states in a whole-brain network (WBN) and a canonical face network (FN). The best-fitting model indicated that FN maturation was marked by both progressive and regressive changes in information diffusion (eigenvector centrality) in the task-positive state, with regressive changes outweighing progressive changes. Hence, FN maturation was characterized by reductions in information diffusion potentially reflecting the development of more specialized modules. In contrast, WBN maturation was marked by a balance of progressive and regressive changes in hub-connectivity (betweenness centrality) in the task-negative state. These findings suggest that the development of specialized networks like the FN depends on dynamic developmental changes associated with domain-specific information (e.g., face processing), but maturation of the brain as a whole can be predicted from task-free states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Joseph
- 1 Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Davy Vanderweyen
- 1 Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Joshua Swearingen
- 1 Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Brandon K Vaughan
- 1 Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Derek Novo
- 1 Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Xun Zhu
- 1 Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Mulugeta Gebregziabher
- 2 Department of Public Health Sciences, and Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Leonardo Bonilha
- 3 Department of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Ramesh Bhatt
- 4 Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Thomas Naselaris
- 1 Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Brian Dean
- 5 Division of Computer Science, School of Computing, Clemson, South Carolina
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19
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Rosenthal G, Sporns O, Avidan G. Stimulus Dependent Dynamic Reorganization of the Human Face Processing Network. Cereb Cortex 2018; 27:4823-4834. [PMID: 27620978 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhw279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Using the "face inversion effect", a hallmark of face perception, we examined network mechanisms supporting face representation by tracking functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) stimulus-dependent dynamic functional connectivity within and between brain networks associated with the processing of upright and inverted faces. We developed a novel approach adapting the general linear model (GLM) framework classically used for univariate fMRI analysis to capture stimulus-dependent fMRI dynamic connectivity of the face network. We show that under the face inversion manipulation, the face and non-face networks have complementary roles that are evident in their stimulus-dependent dynamic connectivity patterns as assessed by network decomposition into components or communities. Moreover, we show that connectivity patterns are associated with the behavioral face inversion effect. Thus, we establish "a network-level signature" of the face inversion effect and demonstrate how a simple physical transformation of the face stimulus induces a dramatic functional reorganization across related brain networks. Finally, we suggest that the dynamic GLM network analysis approach, developed here for the face network, provides a general framework for modeling the dynamics of blocked stimulus-dependent connectivity experimental designs and hence can be applied to a host of neuroimaging studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gideon Rosenthal
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel.,The Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Olaf Sporns
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Galia Avidan
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel.,The Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.,Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
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20
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Lynn AC, Padmanabhan A, Simmonds D, Foran W, Hallquist MN, Luna B, O'Hearn K. Functional connectivity differences in autism during face and car recognition: underconnectivity and atypical age-related changes. Dev Sci 2018; 21:10.1111/desc.12508. [PMID: 27748031 PMCID: PMC5392438 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Face recognition abilities improve between adolescence and adulthood over typical development (TD), but plateau in autism, leading to increasing face recognition deficits in autism later in life. Developmental differences between autism and TD may reflect changes between neural systems involved in the development of face encoding and recognition. Here, we focused on whole-brain connectivity with the fusiform face area (FFA), a well-established face-preferential brain region. Older children, adolescents, and adults with and without autism completed the Cambridge Face Memory Test, and a matched car memory test, during fMRI scanning. We then examined task-based functional connectivity between the FFA and the rest of the brain, comparing autism and TD groups during encoding and recognition of face and car stimuli. The autism group exhibited underconnectivity, relative to the TD group, between the FFA and frontal and primary visual cortices, independent of age. Underconnectivity with the medial and rostral lateral prefrontal cortex was face-specific during encoding and recognition, respectively. Conversely, underconnectivity with the L orbitofrontal cortex was evident for both face and car encoding. Atypical age-related changes in connectivity emerged between the FFA and the R temporoparietal junction, and R dorsal striatum for face stimuli only. Similar differences in age-related changes in autism emerged for FFA connectivity with the amygdala across both face and car recognition. Thus, underconnectivity and atypical development of functional connectivity may lead to a less optimal face-processing network in the context of increasing general and social cognitive deficits in autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Lynn
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, USA
| | | | - Daniel Simmonds
- Laboratory of Neurocognitive Development, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - William Foran
- Laboratory of Neurocognitive Development, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Michael N Hallquist
- Laboratory of Neurocognitive Development, University of Pittsburgh, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Beatriz Luna
- Laboratory of Neurocognitive Development, University of Pittsburgh, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Kirsten O'Hearn
- Laboratory of Neurocognitive Development, University of Pittsburgh, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, USA
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21
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Rosenthal G, Tanzer M, Simony E, Hasson U, Behrmann M, Avidan G. Altered topology of neural circuits in congenital prosopagnosia. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28825896 PMCID: PMC5565317 DOI: 10.7554/elife.25069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Using a novel, fMRI-based inter-subject functional correlation (ISFC) approach, which isolates stimulus-locked inter-regional correlation patterns, we compared the cortical topology of the neural circuit for face processing in participants with an impairment in face recognition, congenital prosopagnosia (CP), and matched controls. Whereas the anterior temporal lobe served as the major network hub for face processing in controls, this was not the case for the CPs. Instead, this group evinced hyper-connectivity in posterior regions of the visual cortex, mostly associated with the lateral occipital and the inferior temporal cortices. Moreover, the extent of this hyper-connectivity was correlated with the face recognition deficit. These results offer new insights into the perturbed cortical topology in CP, which may serve as the underlying neural basis of the behavioral deficits typical of this disorder. The approach adopted here has the potential to uncover altered topologies in other neurodevelopmental disorders, as well. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.25069.001 Human babies prefer to look at faces and pictures of faces over any other object or pattern. A recent study found that even fetuses in the womb will turn their heads towards dots of light shone through the mother’s skin if the dots broadly resemble a face. Brain imaging studies show that face recognition depends on the coordinated activity of multiple brain regions. A core set of areas towards the back of the brain processes the visual features of faces, while regions elsewhere process more variable features such as emotional expressions. Around 2% of people are born with difficulties in recognizing faces, a condition known as congenital prosopagnosia. These individuals have no obvious anatomical abnormalities in the brain, and brain scans reveal normal activity in core regions of the face processing network. So why do these people have difficulty with face recognition? One possibility is that the condition reflects differences in the number of connections (or “connectivity”) between brain regions within the face processing network. To test this idea, Rosenthal et al. compared connectivity in individuals with congenital prosopagnosia with that in healthy volunteers. In the healthy volunteers, an area of the network called the anterior temporal cortex was highly connected to many other face processing regions: that is, it acted as a face processing hub. In individuals with congenital prosopagnosia, this hub-like connectivity was missing. Instead, a number of core regions involved in processing the basic visual features of faces, were more highly connected to one another. The greater this “hyperconnectivity”, the better the individual’s face processing abilities. The findings of Rosenthal et al. pave the way for developing imaging-based tools to diagnose congenital prosopagnosia. The same approach could then be used to investigate the basis of other neurodevelopmental disorders that are thought to involve abnormal communication within brain networks, such as developmental dyslexia. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.25069.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Gideon Rosenthal
- Department of Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.,The Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Michal Tanzer
- The Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.,Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Erez Simony
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Holon Institute of Technology, Holon, Israel.,Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Uri Hasson
- Department of Psychology and the Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, United States
| | - Marlene Behrmann
- Department of Psychology and Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Galia Avidan
- Department of Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.,The Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.,Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
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22
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The contributions of resting state and task-based functional connectivity studies to our understanding of adolescent brain network maturation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 70:13-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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23
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Zhou G, Liu J, Ding XP, Fu G, Lee K. Development of Effective Connectivity during Own- and Other-Race Face Processing: A Granger Causality Analysis. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:474. [PMID: 27713696 PMCID: PMC5031708 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous developmental studies have suggested that other-race effect (ORE) in face recognition emerges as early as in infancy and develops steadily throughout childhood. However, there is very limited research on the neural mechanisms underlying this developmental ORE. The present study used Granger causality analysis (GCA) to examine the development of children's cortical networks in processing own- and other-race faces. Children were between 3 and 13 years. An old-new paradigm was used to assess their own- and other-race face recognition with ETG-4000 (Hitachi Medical Co., Japan) acquiring functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) data. After preprocessing, for each participant and under each face condition, we obtained the causal map by calculating the weights of causal relations between the time courses of [oxy-Hb] of each pair of channels using GCA. To investigate further the differential causal connectivity for own-race faces and other-race faces at the group level, a repeated measure analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the GCA weights for each pair of channels with the face race task (own-race face vs. other-race face) as the within-subject variable and the age as a between-subject factor (continuous variable). We found an age-related increase in functional connectivity, paralleling a similar age-related improvement in behavioral face processing ability. More importantly, we found that the significant differences in neural functional connectivity between the recognition of own-race faces and that of other-race faces were modulated by age. Thus, like the behavioral ORE, the neural ORE emerges early and undergoes a protracted developmental course.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guifei Zhou
- School of Computer and Information Technology, Beijing Jiaotong UniversityBeijing, China
| | - Jiangang Liu
- School of Computer and Information Technology, Beijing Jiaotong UniversityBeijing, China
| | - Xiao Pan Ding
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, National University of SingaporeSingapore, Singapore
| | - Genyue Fu
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal UniversityHangzhou, China
| | - Kang Lee
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal UniversityJinhua, China
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24
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Cloutier J, Li T, Mišić B, Correll J, Berman MG. Brain Network Activity During Face Perception: The Impact of Perceptual Familiarity and Individual Differences in Childhood Experience. Cereb Cortex 2016; 27:4326-4338. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhw232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
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25
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Zhu X, Bhatt RS, Joseph JE. Pruning or tuning? Maturational profiles of face specialization during typical development. Brain Behav 2016; 6:e00464. [PMID: 27313976 PMCID: PMC4907975 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Revised: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Face processing undergoes significant developmental change with age. Two kinds of developmental changes in face specialization were examined in this study: specialized maturation, or the continued tuning of a region to faces but little change in the tuning to other categories; and competitive interactions, or the continued tuning to faces accompanied by decreased tuning to nonfaces (i.e., pruning). METHODS Using fMRI, in regions where adults showed a face preference, a face- and object-specialization index were computed for younger children (5-8 years), older children (9-12 years) and adults (18-45 years). The specialization index was scaled to each subject's maximum activation magnitude in each region to control for overall age differences in the activation level. RESULTS Although no regions showed significant face specialization in the younger age group, regions strongly associated with social cognition (e.g., right posterior superior temporal sulcus, right inferior orbital cortex) showed specialized maturation, in which tuning to faces increased with age but there was no pruning of nonface responses. Conversely, regions that are associated with more basic perceptual processing or motor mirroring (right middle temporal cortex, right inferior occipital cortex, right inferior frontal opercular cortex) showed competitive interactions in which tuning to faces was accompanied by pruning of object responses with age. CONCLUSIONS The overall findings suggest that cortical maturation for face processing is regional-specific and involves both increased tuning to faces and diminished response to nonfaces. Regions that show competitive interactions likely support a more generalized function that is co-opted for face processing with development, whereas regions that show specialized maturation increase their tuning to faces, potentially in an activity-dependent, experience-driven manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xun Zhu
- Department of Psychology Shihezi University Xinjiang China; Department of Neurosciences Medical University of South Carolina Charleston South Carolina 29425
| | - Ramesh S Bhatt
- Department of Psychology College of Arts and Sciences University of Kentucky Lexington Kentucky 40506
| | - Jane E Joseph
- Department of Neurosciences Medical University of South Carolina Charleston South Carolina 29425
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26
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Behrmann M, Scherf KS, Avidan G. Neural mechanisms of face perception, their emergence over development, and their breakdown. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2016; 7:247-63. [PMID: 27196333 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Revised: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/27/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Face perception is probably the most developed visual perceptual skill in humans, most likely as a result of its unique evolutionary and social significance. Much recent research has converged to identify a host of relevant psychological mechanisms that support face recognition. In parallel, there has been substantial progress in uncovering the neural mechanisms that mediate rapid and accurate face perception, with specific emphasis on a broadly distributed neural circuit, comprised of multiple nodes whose joint activity supports face perception. This article focuses specifically on the neural underpinnings of face recognition, and reviews recent structural and functional imaging studies that elucidate the neural basis of this ability. In addition, the article covers some of the recent investigations that characterize the emergence of the neural basis of face recognition over the course of development, and explores the relationship between these changes and increasing behavioural competence. This paper also describes studies that characterize the nature of the breakdown of face recognition in individuals who are impaired in face recognition, either as a result of brain damage acquired at some point or as a result of the failure to master face recognition over the course of development. Finally, information regarding similarities between the neural circuits for face perception in humans and in nonhuman primates is briefly covered, as is the contribution of subcortical regions to face perception. WIREs Cogn Sci 2016, 7:247-263. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1388 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Behrmann
- Department of Psychology and Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - K Suzanne Scherf
- Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Galia Avidan
- Department of Psychology, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
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Abstract
Extensive studies have demonstrated that face recognition performance does not reach adult levels until adolescence. However, there is no consensus on whether such prolonged improvement stems from development of general cognitive factors or face-specific mechanisms. Here, we used behavioral experiments and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to evaluate these two hypotheses. With a large cohort of children (n = 379), we found that the ability of face-specific recognition in humans increased with age throughout childhood and into late adolescence in both face memory and face perception. Neurally, to circumvent the potential problem of age differences in task performance, attention, or cognitive strategies in task-state fMRI studies, we measured the resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) between the occipital face area (OFA) and fusiform face area (FFA) in human brain and found that the OFA-FFA RSFC increased until 11-13 years of age. Moreover, the OFA-FFA RSFC was selectively impaired in adults with developmental prosopagnosia (DP). In contrast, no age-related changes or differences between DP and normal adults were observed for RSFCs in the object system. Finally, the OFA-FFA RSFC matured earlier than face selectivity in either the OFA or FFA. These results suggest the critical role of the OFA-FFA RSFC in the development of face recognition. Together, our findings support the hypothesis that prolonged development of face recognition is face specific, not domain general.
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28
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Shaw DJ, Mareček R, Grosbras MH, Leonard G, Pike GB, Paus T. Co-ordinated structural and functional covariance in the adolescent brain underlies face processing performance. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2016; 11:556-68. [PMID: 26772669 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsv138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Our ability to process complex social cues presented by faces improves during adolescence. Using multivariate analyses of neuroimaging data collected longitudinally from a sample of 38 adolescents (17 males) when they were 10, 11.5, 13 and 15 years old, we tested the possibility that there exists parallel variations in the structural and functional development of neural systems supporting face processing. By combining measures of task-related functional connectivity and brain morphology, we reveal that both the structural covariance and functional connectivity among 'distal' nodes of the face-processing network engaged by ambiguous faces increase during this age range. Furthermore, we show that the trajectory of increasing functional connectivity between the distal nodes occurs in tandem with the development of their structural covariance. This demonstrates a tight coupling between functional and structural maturation within the face-processing network. Finally, we demonstrate that increased functional connectivity is associated with age-related improvements of face-processing performance, particularly in females. We suggest that our findings reflect greater integration among distal elements of the neural systems supporting the processing of facial expressions. This, in turn, might facilitate an enhanced extraction of social information from faces during a time when greater importance is placed on social interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Joel Shaw
- Behavioral and Social Neuroscience Research Group, CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Radek Mareček
- Behavioral and Social Neuroscience Research Group, CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic, First Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, and St. Anne's University Hospital, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | | | - Gabriel Leonard
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - G Bruce Pike
- Departments of Radiology & Clinical Neuroscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada, and
| | - Tomáš Paus
- Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry, Rotman Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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29
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He W, Garrido MI, Sowman PF, Brock J, Johnson BW. Development of effective connectivity in the core network for face perception. Hum Brain Mapp 2015; 36:2161-73. [PMID: 25704356 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.22762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2014] [Revised: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
This study measured effective connectivity within the core face network in young children using a paediatric magnetoencephalograph (MEG). Dynamic casual modeling (DCM) of brain responses was performed in a group of adults (N = 14) and a group of young children aged from 3 to 6 years (N = 15). Three candidate DCM models were tested, and the fits of the MEG data to the three models were compared at both individual and group levels. The results show that the connectivity structure of the core face network differs significantly between adults and children. Further, the relative strengths of face network connections were differentially modulated by experimental conditions in the two groups. These results support the interpretation that the core face network undergoes significant structural configuration and functional specialization between four years of age and adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei He
- Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, New South Wales, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Cognition and Its Disorders, Macquarie University, New South Wales, Australia
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Development of visual systems for faces and objects: further evidence for prolonged development of the face system. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99942. [PMID: 24955959 PMCID: PMC4067275 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The development of face and object processing has attracted much attention; however, studies that directly compare processing of both visual categories across age are rare. In the present study, we compared the developmental trajectories of face and object processing in younger children (8–10 years), older children (11–13 years), adolescents (14–16 years), and adults (20–37). Methodology/Principal Findings We used a congruency paradigm in which subjects compared the internal features of two stimuli, while the (unattended) external features either agreed or disagreed independent of the identity of the internal features. We found a continuous increase in matching accuracy for faces and watches across childhood and adolescence, with different magnitudes for both visual categories. In watch perception, adult levels were reached at the age of 14–16, but not in face perception. The effect of context and inversion, as measures of holistic and configural processing, were clearly restricted to faces in all age groups. This finding suggests that different mechanisms are involved in face and object perception at any age tested. Moreover, the modulation of context and inversion effects by exposure duration was strongly age-dependent, with the strongest age-related differences found for brief timings below 140 ms. Conclusions/Significance The results of the present study suggest prolonged development of face-specific processing up to young adulthood. The improvement in face processing is qualitatively different from the improvement of general perceptual and cognitive ability.
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Meinhardt-Injac B, Persike M, Meinhardt G. Integration of internal and external facial features in 8- to 10-year-old children and adults. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2014; 149:96-105. [PMID: 24769271 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Revised: 03/18/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Investigation of whole-part and composite effects in 4- to 6-year-old children gave rise to claims that face perception is fully mature within the first decade of life (Crookes & McKone, 2009). However, only internal features were tested, and the role of external features was not addressed, although external features are highly relevant for holistic face perception (Sinha & Poggio, 1996; Axelrod & Yovel, 2010, 2011). In this study, 8- to 10-year-old children and adults performed a same-different matching task with faces and watches. In this task participants attended to either internal or external features. Holistic face perception was tested using a congruency paradigm, in which face and non-face stimuli either agreed or disagreed in both features (congruent contexts) or just in the attended ones (incongruent contexts). In both age groups, pronounced context congruency and inversion effects were found for faces, but not for watches. These findings indicate holistic feature integration for faces. While inversion effects were highly similar in both age groups, context congruency effects were stronger for children. Moreover, children's face matching performance was generally better when attending to external compared to internal features. Adults tended to perform better when attending to internal features. Our results indicate that both adults and 8- to 10-year-old children integrate external and internal facial features into holistic face representations. However, in children's face representations external features are much more relevant. These findings suggest that face perception is holistic but still not adult-like at the end of the first decade of life.
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Grady CL, Mondloch CJ, Lewis TL, Maurer D. Early visual deprivation from congenital cataracts disrupts activity and functional connectivity in the face network. Neuropsychologia 2014; 57:122-39. [PMID: 24657305 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2013] [Revised: 03/09/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The development of the face-processing network has been examined with functional neuroimaging, but the effect of visual deprivation early in life on this network is not known. We examined this question in a group of young adults who had been born with dense, central cataracts in both eyes that blocked all visual input to the retina until the cataracts were removed during infancy. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine regions in the "core" and "extended" face networks as participants viewed faces and other objects, and performed a face discrimination task. This task required matching faces on the basis of facial features or on the spacing between the facial features. The Cataract group (a) had reduced discrimination performance on the Spacing task relative to Controls; (b) used the same brain regions as Controls when passively viewing faces or making judgments about faces, but showed reduced activation during passive viewing of faces, especially in extended face-network regions; and (c) unlike Controls, showed activation in face-network regions for objects. In addition, the functional connections of the fusiform gyri with the rest of the face network were altered, and these brain changes were related to Cataract participants' performance on the face discrimination task. These results provide evidence that early visual input is necessary to set up or preserve activity and functional connectivity in the face-processing network that will later mediate expert face processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl L Grady
- Rotman Research Institute at Baycrest, Departments of Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
| | | | - Terri L Lewis
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Daphne Maurer
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Haist F, Adamo M, Han J, Lee K, Stiles J. The functional architecture for face-processing expertise: FMRI evidence of the developmental trajectory of the core and the extended face systems. Neuropsychologia 2013; 51:2893-908. [PMID: 23948645 PMCID: PMC3825803 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2013] [Revised: 08/02/2013] [Accepted: 08/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Expertise in processing faces is a cornerstone of human social interaction. However, the developmental course of many key brain regions supporting face preferential processing in the human brain remains undefined. Here, we present findings from an FMRI study using a simple viewing paradigm of faces and objects in a continuous age sample covering the age range from 6 years through adulthood. These findings are the first to use such a sample paired with whole-brain FMRI analyses to investigate development within the core and extended face networks across the developmental spectrum from middle childhood to adulthood. We found evidence, albeit modest, for a developmental trend in the volume of the right fusiform face area (rFFA) but no developmental change in the intensity of activation. From a spatial perspective, the middle portion of the right fusiform gyrus most commonly found in adult studies of face processing was increasingly likely to be included in the FFA as age increased to adulthood. Outside of the FFA, the most striking finding was that children hyperactivated nearly every aspect of the extended face system relative to adults, including the amygdala, anterior temporal pole, insula, inferior frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate gyrus, and parietal cortex. Overall, the findings suggest that development is best characterized by increasing modulation of face-sensitive regions throughout the brain to engage only those systems necessary for task requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Haist
- Psychiatry Department, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0115 USA
- Center for Human Development, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0115 USA
| | - Maha Adamo
- Center for Human Development, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0115 USA
| | - Jarnet Han
- Center for Human Development, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0115 USA
| | - Kang Lee
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, 45 Walmer Road, Toronto, Ontario M5R 2X2 Canada
| | - Joan Stiles
- Center for Human Development, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0115 USA
- Cognitive Science Department, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0115 USA
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Scherf KS, Smyth JM, Delgado MR. The amygdala: an agent of change in adolescent neural networks. Horm Behav 2013; 64:298-313. [PMID: 23756154 PMCID: PMC3781589 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2012] [Revised: 05/03/2013] [Accepted: 05/28/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
This article is part of a Special Issue "Puberty and Adolescence". A unique component of adolescent development is the need to master new developmental tasks in which peer interactions become primary (for the purposes of becoming autonomous from parents, forming intimate friendships, and romantic/sexual partnerships). Previously, it has been suggested that the ability to master these tasks requires an important re-organization in the relation between perceptual, motivational, affective, and cognitive systems in a very general and broad way that is fundamentally influenced by the infusion of sex hormones during pubertal development (Scherf et al., 2012). Herein, we extend this argument to suggest that the amygdala, which is vastly connected with cortical and subcortical regions and contains sex hormone receptors, may lie at the heart of this re-organization. We propose that during adolescent development there is a shift in the attribution of relevance to existing stimuli and contexts that is mediated by the amygdala (e.g., heightened relevance of peer faces, reduced relevance of physical distance from parents). As a result, amygdala inputs to existing stable neural networks are re-weighted (increased or decreased), which destabilizes the functional interactions among regions within these networks and allows for a critical restructuring of the network functional organization. This process of network re-organization enables processing of qualitatively new kinds of social information and the emergence of novel behaviors that support mastery of adolescent-specific developmental tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Suzanne Scherf
- Dept. of Psychology, Center for Brain, Behavior & Cognition, and Social Science Research Institute, Penn State University
| | - Joshua M. Smyth
- Dept. of Biobehavioral Health and Social Science Research Institute, Penn State University
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Besseling RM, Jansen JF, Overvliet GM, van der Kruijs SJ, Vles JS, Ebus SC, Hofman PA, Louw AD, Aldenkamp AP, Backes WH. Reduced functional integration of the sensorimotor and language network in rolandic epilepsy. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2013; 2:239-46. [PMID: 24179777 PMCID: PMC3777786 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2013.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2012] [Revised: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 01/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Over the last years, evidence has accumulated that rolandic epilepsy (RE) is associated with serious cognitive comorbidities, including language impairment. However, the cerebral mechanism through which epileptiform activity in the rolandic (sensorimotor) areas may affect the language system is unknown. To investigate this, the connectivity between rolandic areas and regions involved in language processing is studied using functional MRI (fMRI). Materials and methods fMRI data was acquired from 22 children with rolandic epilepsy and 22 age-matched controls (age range: 8–14 years), both at rest and using word-generation and reading tasks. Activation map analysis revealed no group differences (FWE-corrected, p < 0.05) and was therefore used to define regions of interest for pooled (patients and controls combined) language activation. Independent component analysis with dual regression was used to identify the sensorimotor resting-state network in all subjects. The associated functional connectivity maps were compared between groups at the regions of interest for language activation identified from the task data. In addition, neuropsychological language testing (Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, 4th edition) was performed. Results Functional connectivity with the sensorimotor network was reduced in patients compared to controls (p = 0.011) in the left inferior frontal gyrus, i.e. Broca's area as identified by the word-generation task. No aberrant functional connectivity values were found in the other regions of interest, nor were any associations found between functional connectivity and language performance. Neuropsychological testing confirmed language impairment in patients relative to controls (reductions in core language score, p = 0.03; language content index, p = 0.01; receptive language index, p = 0.005). Conclusion Reduced functional connectivity was demonstrated between the sensorimotor network and the left inferior frontal gyrus (Broca's area) in children with RE, which might link epileptiform activity/seizures originating from the sensorimotor cortex to language impairment, and is in line with the identified neuropsychological profile of anterior language dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- René M.H. Besseling
- Epilepsy center Kempenhaeghe, Heeze, the Netherlands
- Research School for Mental Health & Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
- Department of Radiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Jacobus F.A. Jansen
- Research School for Mental Health & Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
- Department of Radiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Geke M. Overvliet
- Epilepsy center Kempenhaeghe, Heeze, the Netherlands
- Research School for Mental Health & Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Sylvie J.M. van der Kruijs
- Epilepsy center Kempenhaeghe, Heeze, the Netherlands
- Research School for Mental Health & Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Johannes S.H. Vles
- Epilepsy center Kempenhaeghe, Heeze, the Netherlands
- Department of Neurology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | | | - Paul A.M. Hofman
- Epilepsy center Kempenhaeghe, Heeze, the Netherlands
- Department of Radiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Anton de Louw
- Epilepsy center Kempenhaeghe, Heeze, the Netherlands
| | - Albert P. Aldenkamp
- Epilepsy center Kempenhaeghe, Heeze, the Netherlands
- Department of Neurology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Walter H. Backes
- Research School for Mental Health & Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
- Department of Radiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands
- Corresponding author at: Department of Radiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, PB 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands. Tel.: + 31 43 3874910; fax: + 31 43 3876909.
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