Nitric oxide-soluble guanylyl cyclase signaling regulates corticostriatal transmission and short-term synaptic plasticity of striatal projection neurons recorded in vivo

Participation of the nitric oxide pathway in lordosis induced by apelin-13 in female rats

The present study investigated the participation of the nitric oxide pathway in facilitating lordosis behavior induced by intrahypothalamic administration of apelin-13 in ovariectomized rats primed with estradiol benzoate (EB). The experiments involved the administration of a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor (L-NAME) or a nitric oxide-dependent, soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor (ODQ), and an inhibitor of protein kinase G (KT5823) to the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) of EB-primed rats 30 min before infusion of apelin-13 (0.75 μg/μl). This dose of apelin-13 consistently induces lordosis behavior at 30 min, 120 min, and 240 min following infusion. Results showed that injections of either L-NAME or KT5823 significantly reduced the lordosis induced by apelin at 120 and 240 min. However, VMH infusion of ODQ 30 min before apelin-13 infusion reduced but did not significantly inhibit, the lordosis elicited by this peptide at the same time points. We conclude that the nitric oxide pathway in the VMH plays an important role in lordosis induced by apelin-13 in EB-primed rats.

Nitric Oxide Synthase Blockade Impairs Spontaneous Calcium Activity in Mouse Primary Hippocampal Culture Cells

Oscillation of intracellular calcium concentration is a stable phenomenon that affects cellular function throughout the lifetime of both electrically excitable and non-excitable cells. Nitric oxide, a gaseous secondary messenger and the product of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), affects intracellular calcium dynamics. Using mouse hippocampal primary cultures, we recorded the effect of NOS blockade on neuronal spontaneous calcium activity. There was a correlation between the amplitude of spontaneous calcium events and the number of action potentials (APs) (Spearman R = 0.94). There was a linear rise of DAF-FM fluorescent emission showing an increase in NO concentration with time in neurons (11.9 ± 1.0%). There is correlation between the integral of the signal from DAF-FM and the integral of the spontaneous calcium event signal from Oregon Green 488 (Spearman R = 0.58). Blockade of NOS affected the parameters of the spontaneous calcium events studied (amplitude, frequency, integral, rise slope and decay slope). NOS blockade by Nw-Nitro-L-arginine suppressed the amplitude and frequency of spontaneous calcium events. The NOS blocker 3-Bromo-7-Nitroindazole reduced the frequency but not the amplitude of spontaneous calcium activity. Blockade of the well-known regulator of NOS, calcineurin with cyclosporine A reduced the integral of calcium activity in neurons. The differences and similarities in the effects on the parameters of spontaneous calcium effects caused by different blockades of NO production help to improve understanding of how NO synthesis affects calcium dynamics in neurons.

Phosphodiesterase 10A Inhibition Modulates the Corticostriatal Activity and L-DOPA-Induced Dyskinesia

The facilitation of corticostriatal transmission is modulated by the pharmacological inhibition of striatal phosphodiesterase 10A (PDE10A). Since L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia is associated with abnormal corticostriatal transmission, we hypothesized that inhibition of PDE10A would modulate L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID) by regulating corticostriatal activity. 6-OHDA-lesioned rats were chronically treated with L-DOPA for one week. After that, for two additional weeks, animals were treated with the PDE10A inhibitor PDM-042 (1 and 3 mg/kg) one hour before L-DOPA. Behavioral analyses were performed to quantify abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) and to assess the antiparkinsonian effects of L-DOPA. Single-unit extracellular electrophysiological recordings were performed in vivo to characterize the responsiveness of MSNs to cortical stimulation. The low dose of PDM-042 had an antidyskinetic effect (i.e., attenuated peak-dose dyskinesia) and did not interfere with cortically evoked spike activity. Conversely, the high dose of PDM-042 did not affect peak-dose dyskinesia, prolonged AIMs, and increased cortically evoked spike activity. These data suggest that the facilitation of corticostriatal transmission is likely to contribute to the expression of AIMs. Therefore, cyclic nucleotide manipulation is an essential target in controlling LID.

Role of 5-HT1A Receptor in Vilazodone-Mediated Suppression of L-DOPA-Induced Dyskinesia and Increased Responsiveness to Cortical Input in Striatal Medium Spiny Neurons in an Animal Model of Parkinson's Disease

L-DOPA therapy in Parkinson’s disease (PD) is limited due to emerging L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia. Research has identified abnormal dopamine release from serotonergic (5-HT) terminals contributing to this dyskinesia. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or 5-HT receptor (5-HTr) agonists can regulate 5-HT activity and attenuate dyskinesia, but they often also produce a loss of the antiparkinsonian efficacy of L-DOPA. We investigated vilazodone, a novel multimodal 5-HT agent with SSRI and 5-HTr_1A partial agonist properties, for its potential to reduce dyskinesia without interfering with the prokinetic effects of L-DOPA, and underlying mechanisms. We assessed vilazodone effects on L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (abnormal involuntary movements, AIMs) and aberrant responsiveness to corticostriatal drive in striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) measured with in vivo single-unit extracellular recordings, in the 6-OHDA rat model of PD. Vilazodone (10 mg/kg) suppressed all subtypes (axial, limb, orolingual) of AIMs induced by L-DOPA (5 mg/kg) and the increase in MSN responsiveness to cortical stimulation (shorter spike onset latency). Both the antidyskinetic effects and reversal in MSN excitability by vilazodone were inhibited by the 5-HTr_1A antagonist WAY-100635, demonstrating a critical role for 5-HTr_1A in these vilazodone actions. Our results indicate that vilazodone may serve as an adjunct therapeutic for reducing dyskinesia in patients with PD.

Soluble Guanylate Cyclase Inhibitors Discovered among Natural Compounds

Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is the human receptor of nitric oxide (NO) in numerous kinds of cells and produces the second messenger 3',5'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) upon NO binding to its heme. sGC is involved in many cell signaling pathways both under healthy conditions and under pathological conditions, such as angiogenesis associated with tumor growth. Addressing the selective inhibition of the NO/cGMP pathway is a strategy worthwhile to be investigated for slowing down tumoral angiogenesis or for curing vasoplegia. However, sGC inhibitors are lacking investigation. We have explored a chemical library of various natural compounds and have discovered inhibitors of sGC. The selected compounds were evaluated for their inhibition of purified sGC in vitro and sGC in endothelial cells. Six natural compounds, from various organisms, have IC₅₀ in the range 0.2-1.5 μM for inhibiting the NO-activated synthesis of cGMP by sGC, and selected compounds exhibit a quantified antiangiogenic activity using an endothelial cell line. These sGC inhibitors can be used directly as tools to investigate angiogenesis and cell signaling or as templates for drug design.

Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 counteracts L-NAME-induced catalepsy. BPC 157, L-NAME, L-arginine, NO-relation, in the suited rat acute and chronic models resembling 'positive-like' symptoms of schizophrenia

In the suited rat-models, we focused on the stable pentadecapeptide BPC 157, L-NAME, NOS-inhibitor, and L-arginine, NOS-substrate, relation, the effect on schizophrenia-like symptoms. Medication (mg/kg intraperitoneally) was L-NAME (5), L-arginine (100), BPC 157 (0.01), given alone and/or together, at 5 min before the challenge for the acutely disturbed motor activity (dopamine-indirect/direct agonists (amphetamine (3.0), apomorphine (2.5)), NMDA-receptor non-competitive antagonist (MK-801 (0.2)), or catalepsy, (dopamine-receptor antagonist haloperidol (2.0)). Alternatively, BPC 157 10 μg/kg was given immediately after L-NAME 40 mg/kg intraperitoneally. To induce or prevent sensitization, we used chronic methamphetamine administration, alternating 3 days during the first 3 weeks, and challenge after next 4 weeks, and described medication (L-NAME, L-arginine, BPC 157) at 5 min before the methamphetamine at the second and third week. Given alone, BPC 157 or L-arginine counteracted the amphetamine-, apomorphine-, and MK-801-induced effect, haloperidol-induced catalepsy and chronic methamphetamine-induced sensitization. L-NAME did not affect the apomorphine-, and MK-801-induced effects, haloperidol-induced catalepsy and chronic methamphetamine-induced sensitization, but counteracted the acute amphetamine-induced effect. In combinations (L-NAME + L-arginine), as NO-specific counteraction, L-NAME counteracts L-arginine-induced counteractions in the apomorphine-, MK-801-, haloperidol- and methamphetamine-rats, but not in amphetamine-rats. Unlike L-arginine, BPC 157 maintains its counteracting effect in the presence of the NOS-blockade (L-NAME + BPC 157) or NO-system-over-stimulation (L-arginine + BPC 157). Illustrating the BPC 157-L-arginine relationships, BPC 157 restored the antagonization (L-NAME + L-arginine + BPC 157) when it had been abolished by the co-administration of L-NAME with L-arginine (L-NAME + L-arginine). Finally, BPC 157 directly inhibits the L-NAME high dose-induced catalepsy. Further studies would determine precise BPC 157/dopamine/glutamate/NO-system relationships and clinical application.

Phosphodiesterase 9A Inhibition Facilitates Corticostriatal Transmission in Wild-Type and Transgenic Rats That Model Huntington's Disease

Huntington's disease (HD) results from abnormal expansion in CAG trinucleotide repeats within the HD gene, a mutation which leads to degeneration of striatal medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs), deficits in corticostriatal transmission, and loss of motor control. Recent studies also indicate that metabolism of cyclic nucleotides by phosphodiesterases (PDEs) is dysregulated in striatal networks in a manner linked to deficits in corticostriatal transmission. The current study assessed cortically-evoked firing in electrophysiologically-identified MSNs and fast-spiking interneurons (FSIs) in aged (9-11 months old) wild-type (WT) and BACHD transgenic rats (TG5) treated with vehicle or the selective PDE9A inhibitor PF-04447943. WT and TG5 rats were anesthetized with urethane and single-unit activity was isolated during low frequency electrical stimulation of the ipsilateral motor cortex. Compared to WT controls, MSNs recorded in TG5 animals exhibited decreased spike probability during cortical stimulation delivered at low to moderate stimulation intensities. Moreover, large increases in onset latency of cortically-evoked spikes and decreases in spike probability were observed in FSIs recorded in TG5 animals. Acute systemic administration of the PDE9A inhibitor PF-04447943 significantly decreased the onset latency of cortically-evoked spikes in MSNs recorded in WT and TG5 rats. PDE9A inhibition also increased the proportion of MSNs responding to cortical stimulation and reversed deficits in spike probability observed in TG5 rats. As PDE9A is a cGMP specific enzyme, drugs such as PF-04447943 which act to facilitate striatal cGMP signaling and glutamatergic corticostriatal transmission could be useful therapeutic agents for restoring striatal function and alleviating motor and cognitive symptoms associated with HD.

Striatal Nurr1 Facilitates the Dyskinetic State and Exacerbates Levodopa-Induced Dyskinesia in a Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease

The transcription factor Nurr1 has been identified to be ectopically induced in the striatum of rodents expressing l-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID). In the present study, we sought to characterize Nurr1 as a causative factor in LID expression. We used rAAV2/5 to overexpress Nurr1 or GFP in the parkinsonian striatum of LID-resistant Lewis or LID-prone Fischer-344 (F344) male rats. In a second cohort, rats received the Nurr1 agonist amodiaquine (AQ) together with l-DOPA or ropinirole. All rats received a chronic DA agonist and were evaluated for LID severity. Finally, we performed single-unit recordings and dendritic spine analyses on striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in drug-naïve rAAV-injected male parkinsonian rats. rAAV-GFP injected LID-resistant hemi-parkinsonian Lewis rats displayed mild LID and no induction of striatal Nurr1 despite receiving a high dose of l-DOPA. However, Lewis rats overexpressing Nurr1 developed severe LID. Nurr1 agonism with AQ exacerbated LID in F344 rats. We additionally determined that in l-DOPA-naïve rats striatal rAAV-Nurr1 overexpression (1) increased cortically-evoked firing in a subpopulation of identified striatonigral MSNs, and (2) altered spine density and thin-spine morphology on striatal MSNs; both phenomena mimicking changes seen in dyskinetic rats. Finally, we provide postmortem evidence of Nurr1 expression in striatal neurons of l-DOPA-treated PD patients. Our data demonstrate that ectopic induction of striatal Nurr1 is capable of inducing LID behavior and associated neuropathology, even in resistant subjects. These data support a direct role of Nurr1 in aberrant neuronal plasticity and LID induction, providing a potential novel target for therapeutic development.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The transcription factor Nurr1 is ectopically induced in striatal neurons of rats exhibiting levodopa-induced dyskinesia [LID; a side-effect to dopamine replacement strategies in Parkinson's disease (PD)]. Here we asked whether Nurr1 is causing LID. Indeed, rAAV-mediated expression of Nurr1 in striatal neurons was sufficient to overcome LID-resistance, and Nurr1 agonism exacerbated LID severity in dyskinetic rats. Moreover, we found that expression of Nurr1 in l-DOPA naïve hemi-parkinsonian rats resulted in the formation of morphologic and electrophysiological signatures of maladaptive neuronal plasticity; a phenomenon associated with LID. Finally, we determined that ectopic Nurr1 expression can be found in the putamen of l-DOPA-treated PD patients. These data suggest that striatal Nurr1 is an important mediator of the formation of LID.

Regulation of dopamine neurotransmission from serotonergic neurons by ectopic expression of the dopamine D2 autoreceptor blocks levodopa-induced dyskinesia

Levodopa-induced dyskinesias (LID) are a prevalent side effect of chronic treatment with levodopa (L-DOPA) for the motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (PD). It has long been hypothesized that serotonergic neurons of the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) are capable of L-DOPA uptake and dysregulated release of dopamine (DA), and that this “false neurotransmission” phenomenon is a main contributor to LID development. Indeed, many preclinical studies have demonstrated LID management with serotonin receptor agonist treatment, but unfortunately, promising preclinical data has not been translated in large-scale clinical trials. Importantly, while there is an abundance of convincing clinical and preclinical evidence supporting a role of maladaptive serotonergic neurotransmission in LID expression, there is no direct evidence that dysregulated DA release from serotonergic neurons impacts LID formation. In this study, we ectopically expressed the DA autoreceptor D2R_s (or GFP) in the DRN of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesioned rats. No negative impact on the therapeutic efficacy of L-DOPA was seen with rAAV-D2R_s therapy. However, D2R_s treated animals, when subjected to a LID-inducing dose regimen of L-DOPA, remained completely resistant to LID, even at high doses. Moreover, the same subjects remained resistant to LID formation when treated with direct DA receptor agonists, suggesting D2R_s activity in the DRN blocked dyskinesogenic L-DOPA priming of striatal neurons. In vivo microdialysis confirmed that DA efflux in the striatum was reduced with rAAV-D2R_s treatment, providing explicit evidence that abnormal DA release from DRN neurons can affect LID. This is the first direct evidence of dopaminergic neurotransmission in DRN neurons and its modulation with rAAV-D2R_s gene therapy confirms the serotonin hypothesis in LID, demonstrating that regulation of serotonergic neurons achieved with a gene therapy approach offers a novel and potent antidyskinetic therapy.

Age- and sex-related changes in cortical and striatal nitric oxide synthase in the Q175 mouse model of Huntington's disease

In Huntington's disease (HD), corticostriatal and striatopallidal projection neurons preferentially degenerate as a result of mutant huntingtin expression. Pathological deficits in nitric oxide (NO) signaling have also been reported in corticostriatal circuits in HD, however, the impact of age and sex on nitrergic transmission is not well characterized. Thus, we utilized NADPH-diaphorase (NADPH-d) histochemistry and qPCR assays to assess neuronal NO synthase (nNOS) activity/expression in aged male and female Q175 heterozygous mice. Compared to age-matched controls, male Q175 mice exhibited reductions in NADPH-d staining in the motor cortex at 21, but not, 16 months of age. Comparisons across genotypes showed that striatal NADPH-d staining was significantly decreased at both 16 and 21 months of age. Comparisons within sexes in 21 month old mice revealed a decrease in striatal NADPH-d staining in males, but no changes were detected in females. Significant correlations between cortical and striatal NADPH-d staining deficits were also observed in males and females at both ages. To directly assess the role of constitutively active NOS isoforms in these changes, nNOS and endothelial NOS (eNOS) mRNA expression levels were examined in R6/2 (3 month old) and Q175 (11.5 month old) mice using qPCR assays. nNOS transcript expression was decreased in the cortex (40%) and striatum (54%) in R6/2 mice. nNOS mRNA down-regulation in striatum of Q175 animals was more modest (19%), and no changes were detected in cortex. eNOS expression was not changed in the cortex or striatum of Q175 mice. The current findings point to age-dependent deficits in nNOS activity in the HD cortex and striatum which appear first in the striatum and are more pronounced in males. Together, these observations and previous studies indicate that decreases in nitrergic transmission progress with age and are likely to contribute to corticostriatal circuit pathophysiology particularly in male patients with HD.

Association between genetic variability of neuronal nitric oxide synthase and sensorimotor gating in humans

Research increasingly suggests that nitric oxide (NO) plays a role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. One important line of evidence comes from genetic studies, which have repeatedly detected an association between the neuronal isoform of nitric oxide synthase (nNOS or NOS1) and schizophrenia. However, the pathogenetic pathways linking nNOS, NO, and the disorder remain poorly understood. A deficit in sensorimotor gating is considered to importantly contribute to core schizophrenia symptoms such as psychotic disorganization and thought disturbance. We selected three candidate nNOS polymorphisms (Ex1f-VNTR, rs6490121 and rs41279104), associated with schizophrenia and cognition in previous studies, and tested their association with the efficiency of sensorimotor gating in healthy human adults. We found that risk variants of Ex1f-VNTR and rs6490121 (but not rs41279104) were associated with a weaker prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle reflex, a standard measure of sensorimotor gating. Furthermore, the effect of presence of risk variants in Ex1f-VNTR and rs6490121 was additive: PPI linearly decreased with increasing number of risk alleles, being highest in participants with no risk allele, while lowest in individuals who carry three risk alleles. Our findings indicate that NO is involved in the regulation of sensorimotor gating, and highlight one possible pathogenetic mechanism for NO playing a role in the development of schizophrenia psychosis.

Inhibition of phosphodiesterases as a strategy to achieve neuroprotection in Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a fatal neurodegenerative condition, due to a mutation in the IT15 gene encoding for huntingtin. Currently, disease-modifying therapy is not available for HD, and only symptomatic drugs are administered for the management of symptoms. In the last few years, preclinical and clinical studies have indicated that pharmacological strategies aimed at inhibiting cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (PDEs) may develop into a novel therapeutic approach in neurodegenerative disorders. PDEs are a family of enzymes that hydrolyze cyclic nucleotides into monophosphate isoforms. Cyclic nucleotides are second messengers that transduce the signal of hormones and neurotransmitters in many physiological processes, such as protein kinase cascades and synaptic transmission. An alteration in their balance results in the dysregulation of different biological mechanisms (transcriptional dysregulation, immune cell activation, inflammatory mechanisms, and regeneration) that are involved in neurological diseases. In this review, we discuss the action of phosphodiesterase inhibitors and their role as therapeutic agents in HD.

Regulation of Striatal Neuron Activity by Cyclic Nucleotide Signaling and Phosphodiesterase Inhibition: Implications for the Treatment of Parkinson's Disease

Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (PDE) enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis and inactivation of cyclic nucleotides (cAMP/cGMP) in the brain. Several classes of PDE enzymes with distinct tissue distributions, cyclic nucleotide selectivity, and regulatory factors are highly expressed in brain regions subserving cognitive and motor processes known to be disrupted in neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD). Furthermore, small-molecule inhibitors of several different PDE family members alter cyclic nucleotide levels and favorably enhance motor performance and cognition in animal disease models. This chapter will explore the roles and therapeutic potential of non-selective and selective PDE inhibitors on neural processing in fronto-striatal circuits in normal animals and models of DOPA-induced dyskinesias (LIDs) associated with PD. The impact of selective PDE inhibitors and augmentation of cAMP and cGMP signaling on the membrane excitability of striatal medium-sized spiny projection neurons (MSNs) will be discussed. The effects of cyclic nucleotide signaling and PDE inhibitors on synaptic plasticity of striatonigral and striatopallidal MSNs will be also be reviewed. New data on the efficacy of PDE10A inhibitors for reversing behavioral and electrophysiological correlates of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesias in a rat model of PD will also be presented. Together, these data will highlight the potential of novel PDE inhibitors for treatment of movement disorders such as PD which are associated with abnormal corticostriatal transmission.

Impact of Vortioxetine on Synaptic Integration in Prefrontal-Subcortical Circuits: Comparisons with Escitalopram

Prefrontal-subcortical circuits support executive functions which often become dysfunctional in psychiatric disorders. Vortioxetine is a multimodal antidepressant that is currently used in the clinic to treat major depressive disorder. Mechanisms of action of vortioxetine include serotonin (5-HT) transporter blockade, 5-HT_1A receptor agonism, 5-HT_1B receptor partial agonism, and 5-HT_1D, 5-HT₃, and 5-HT₇ receptor antagonism. Vortioxetine facilitates 5-HT transmission in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), however, the impact of this compound on related prefrontal-subcortical circuits is less clear. Thus, the current study examined the impact of systemic vortioxetine administration (0.8 mg/kg, i.v.) on spontaneous spiking and spikes evoked by electrical stimulation of the mPFC in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), medial shell of the nucleus accumbens (msNAc), and lateral septal nucleus (LSN) in urethane-anesthetized rats. We also examined whether vortioxetine modulated afferent drive in the msNAc from hippocampal fimbria (HF) inputs. Similar studies were performed using the selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor [selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI)] escitalopram (1.6 mg/kg, i.v.) to enable comparisons between the multimodal actions of vortioxetine and SSRI-mediated effects. No significant differences in spontaneous activity were observed in the ACC, msNAc, and LSN across treatment groups. No significant impact of treatment on mPFC-evoked responses was observed in the ACC. In contrast, vortioxetine decreased mPFC-evoked activity recorded in the msNAc as compared to parallel studies in control and escitalopram treated groups. Thus, vortioxetine may reduce mPFC-msNAc afferent drive via a mechanism that, in addition to an SSRI-like effect, requires 5-HT receptor modulation. Recordings in the LSN revealed a significant increase in mPFC-evoked activity following escitalopram administration as compared to control and vortioxetine treated groups, indicating that complex modulation of 5-HT receptors by vortioxetine may offset SSRI-like effects in this region. Lastly, neurons in the msNAc were more responsive to stimulation of the HF following both vortioxetine and escitalopram administration, indicating that elevation of 5-HT tone and 5-HT receptor modulation may facilitate excitatory hippocampal synaptic drive in this region. The above findings point to complex 5-HT receptor-dependent effects of vortioxetine which may contribute to its unique impact on the function of prefrontal-subcortical circuits and the development of novel strategies for treating mood disorders.

Effects of a novel phosphodiesterase 10A inhibitor in non-human primates: A therapeutic approach for schizophrenia with improved side effect profile

Schizophrenia symptoms are associated with alterations in basal ganglia-cortical networks that include the cyclic nucleotides (cAMP/cGMP) signaling pathways. Phosphodiesterase 10A (PDE10A) inhibitors have been considered as therapeutic agents for schizophrenia because the regulation of cAMP and cGMP in the striatum by PDE10A plays an important role in the signaling mechanisms of the striatal-cortical network, and thereby in cognitive function. In the present study we assessed in non-human primates (NHPs) the effects of a novel PDE10A inhibitor (FRM-6308) that has demonstrated high potency and selectivity for human recombinant PDE10A in vitro. The behavioral effects of FRM-6308 in a dose range were determined in rhesus monkeys using a standardized motor disability scale for primates, motor tasks, and the "drug effects on the nervous system" (DENS) scale. The neuronal metabolic effects of FRM-6308 were determined with [(18)F]-fluorodeoxyglucose PET imaging. Results showed that FRM-6308 did not have any specific effects on the motor system at s.c. doses up to 0.32 mg/kg in NHPs, which induced a significant increase in the FDG-SUV in striatum (F 16.069, p < 0.05) and cortical (F 15.181, p < 0.05) regions. Higher doses induced sedation and occasional involuntary movements with clear development of tolerance after repeated exposures. These findings suggest that FRM-6308 has the adequate pharmacological profile to advance testing in clinical trials and demonstrate antipsychotic efficacy of PDE10A inhibition for the treatment of schizophrenia patients.

Facilitation of corticostriatal transmission following pharmacological inhibition of striatal phosphodiesterase 10A: role of nitric oxide-soluble guanylyl cyclase-cGMP signaling pathways

The striatum contains a rich variety of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs), which play a critical role in the regulation of cAMP and cGMP signaling. The dual-substrate enzyme PDE10A is the most highly expressed PDE in striatal medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs) with low micromolar affinity for both cyclic nucleotides. Previously, we have shown that systemic and local administration of the selective PDE10A inhibitor TP-10 potently increased the responsiveness of MSNs to cortical stimulation. However, the signaling mechanisms underlying PDE10A inhibitor-induced changes in corticostriatal transmission are only partially understood. The current studies assessed the respective roles of cAMP and cGMP in the above effects using soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) or adenylate cyclase (AC) specific inhibitors. Cortically evoked spike activity was monitored in urethane-anesthetized rats using in vivo extracellular recordings performed proximal to a microdialysis probe during local infusion of vehicle, the selective sGC inhibitor ODQ, or the selective AC inhibitor SQ 22536. Systemic administration of TP-10 (3.2 mg/kg) robustly increased cortically evoked spike activity in a manner that was blocked following intrastriatal infusion of ODQ (50 μm). The effects of TP-10 on evoked activity were due to accumulation of cGMP, rather than cAMP, as the AC inhibitor SQ was without effect. Consistent with these observations, studies in neuronal NO synthase (nNOS) knock-out (KO) mice confirmed that PDE10A operates downstream of nNOS to limit cGMP production and excitatory corticostriatal transmission. Thus, stimulation of PDE10A acts to attenuate corticostriatal transmission in a manner largely dependent on effects directed at the NO-sGC-cGMP signaling cascade.

Age-related alterations in the expression of genes and synaptic plasticity associated with nitric oxide signaling in the mouse dorsal striatum

Age-related alterations in the expression of genes and corticostriatal synaptic plasticity were studied in the dorsal striatum of mice of four age groups from young (2-3 months old) to old (18-24 months of age) animals. A significant decrease in transcripts encoding neuronal nitric oxide (NO) synthase and receptors involved in its activation (NR1 subunit of the glutamate NMDA receptor and D1 dopamine receptor) was found in the striatum of old mice using gene array and real-time RT-PCR analysis. The old striatum showed also a significantly higher number of GFAP-expressing astrocytes and an increased expression of astroglial, inflammatory, and oxidative stress markers. Field potential recordings from striatal slices revealed age-related alterations in the magnitude and dynamics of electrically induced long-term depression (LTD) and significant enhancement of electrically induced long-term potentiation in the middle-aged striatum (6-7 and 12-13 months of age). Corticostriatal NO-dependent LTD induced by pharmacological activation of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors underwent significant reduction with aging and could be restored by inhibition of cGMP hydrolysis indicating that its age-related deficit is caused by an altered NO-cGMP signaling cascade. It is suggested that age-related alterations in corticostriatal synaptic plasticity may result from functional alterations in receptor-activated signaling cascades associated with increasing neuroinflammation and a prooxidant state.

Enhanced inhibitory control by neuropeptide Y Y5 receptor blockade in rats

RATIONALE

The neuropeptide Y (NPY) system acts in synergy with the classic neurotransmitters to regulate a large variety of functions including autonomic, affective, and cognitive processes. Research on the effects of NPY in the central nervous system has focused on food intake control and affective processes, but growing evidence of NPY involvement in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and other psychiatric conditions motivated the present study.

OBJECTIVES

We tested the effects of the novel and highly selective NPY Y5 receptor antagonist Lu AE00654 on impulsivity and the underlying cortico-striatal circuitry in rats to further explore the possible involvement of the NPY system in pathologies characterized by inattention and impulsive behavior.

RESULTS

A low dose of Lu AE00654 (0.03 mg/kg) selectively facilitated response inhibition as measured by the stop-signal task, whereas no effects were found at higher doses (0.3 and 3 mg/kg). Systemic administration of Lu AE00654 also enhanced the inhibitory influence of the dorsal frontal cortex on neurons in the caudate-putamen, this fronto-striatal circuitry being implicated in the executive control of behavior. Finally, by locally injecting a Y5 agonist, we observed reciprocal activation between dorsal frontal cortex and caudate-putamen neurons. Importantly, the effects of the Y5 agonist were attenuated by pretreatment with Lu AE00654, confirming the presence of Y5 binding sites modulating functional interactions within frontal-subcortical circuits.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the NPY system modulates inhibitory neurotransmission in brain areas important for impulse control, and may be relevant for the treatment of pathologies such as ADHD and drug abuse.

Impact of neonatal NOS-1 inhibitor exposure on neurobehavioural measures and prefrontal-temporolimbic integration in the rat nucleus accumbens

Nitric oxide (NO) is a gaseous neurotransmitter that plays a significant role in the establishment and refinement of functional neural circuits. Genetic and post-mortem studies have suggested that neuronal NO synthase (NOS-1) activity may be compromised in frontal and temporal lobes, and related structures, in schizophrenia. The goal of this study was to determine if there is a link between neonatal disruptions in NO signalling and disturbances in the development and function of prefrontal-temporolimbic circuits. Neonatal rats were injected on postnatal days PD3-5 with the selective NOS-1 inhibitor Nω-propyl-L-arginine (NPA) and tested in adulthood (≥PD60) or as juveniles (PD30). Adult rats treated with NPA as neonates exhibited increased amphetamine-induced locomotion compared to animals receiving vehicle as neonates, whereas this was not observed in juvenile rats treated with NPA as neonates. Adult rats exposed to NPA as neonates also exhibited deficits in social interaction and short-term recognition memory, as well as reduced brain weight, compared to vehicle-treated controls. Finally, neonatal NPA exposure increased the responsiveness of nucleus accumbens neurons to prefrontal cortical input and disrupted the modulation of cortico-accumbens circuits by hippocampal afferents that is normally observed in adult animals. These results show for the first time that neonatal inhibition of NOS-1 during a critical neurodevelopmental period leads to aberrant behaviours that manifest in adulthood, as well as electrophysiological abnormalities in prefrontal-temporolimbic circuits. Greater understanding of the role of NOS-1 in the development of these circuits will shed light on how developmental insults translate to pathophysiology associated with schizophrenia.

Review: Modulation of striatal neuron activity by cyclic nucleotide signaling and phosphodiesterase inhibition

The cyclic nucleotides cAMP and cGMP are common signaling molecules synthesized in neurons following the activation of adenylyl or guanylyl cyclase. In the striatum, the synthesis and degradation of cAMP and cGMP is highly regulated as these second messengers have potent effects on the activity of striatonigral and striatopallidal neurons. This review will summarize the literature on cyclic nucleotide signaling in the striatum with a particular focus on the impact of cAMP and cGMP on the membrane excitability of striatal medium-sized spiny output neurons (MSNs). The effects of non-selective and selective phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors on membrane activity and synaptic plasticity of MSNs will also be reviewed. Lastly, this review will discuss the implications of the effects PDE modulation on electrophysiological activity of striatal MSNs as it relates to the treatment of neurological disorders such as Huntington's and Parkinson's disease.

Ca2+-permeable AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid) receptors and dopamine D1 receptors regulate GluA1 trafficking in striatal neurons

Regulation of striatal medium spiny neuron synapses underlies forms of motivated behavior and pathological drug seeking. A primary mechanism for increasing synaptic strength is the trafficking of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors (AMPARs) into the postsynapse, a process mediated by GluA1 AMPAR subunit phosphorylation. We have examined the role of converging glutamate and dopamine inputs in regulating biochemical cascades upstream of GluA1 phosphorylation. We focused on the role of Ca(2+)-permeable AMPARs (CPARs), which lack the GluA2 AMPAR subunit. Under conditions that prevented depolarization, stimulation of CPARs activated neuronal nitric oxide synthase and production of cGMP. CPAR-dependent cGMP production was sufficient to induce synaptic insertion of GluA1, detected by confocal microscopy, through a mechanism dependent on GluA1 Ser-845 phosphorylation. Dopamine D1 receptors, in contrast, stimulate GluA1 extra synaptic insertion. Simultaneous activation of dopamine D1 receptors and CPARs induced additive increases in GluA1 membrane insertion, but only CPAR stimulation augmented CPAR-dependent GluA1 synaptic insertion. This incorporation into the synapse proceeded through a sequential two-step mechanism; that is, cGMP-dependent protein kinase II facilitated membrane insertion and/or retention, and protein kinase C activity was necessary for synaptic insertion. These data suggest a feed-forward mechanism for synaptic priming whereby an initial stimulus acting independently of voltage-gated conductance increases striatal neuron excitability, facilitating greater neuronal excitation by a subsequent stimulus.

Involvement of nNOS/NO/sGC/cGMP signaling pathway in cocaine sensitization and in the associated hippocampal alterations: does phosphodiesterase 5 inhibition help to drug vulnerability?

RATIONALE

Repeated cocaine administration induces behavioral sensitization in about 50 % of treated animals. Nitric oxide could be involved in the acquisition and maintenance of behavioral cocaine effects, probably by activation of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS)/NO/soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC)/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) signaling pathway, since inhibition of the nNOS enzyme attenuates development of sensitization in rats. On the other hand, increased cGMP availability by phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors has been correlated to the misuse and recreational use of these agents and also to the concomitant use with illicit drugs in humans. Hippocampus is an important brain region for conditioning to general context previously associated to drug availability, influencing drug-seeking behavior and sensitization. Moreover, cocaine and other drugs of abuse can affect the strength of glutamate synapses in this structure, lastly modifying neuronal activity in main regions of the reward circuitry.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to determine whether the pharmacological manipulation of nNOS/NO/sGC/cGMP signaling pathway altered changes induced by repeated cocaine exposure.

RESULTS

The present investigation showed a relationship between behavioral cocaine sensitization, reduced threshold to generate long-term potentiation (LTP) in hippocampal dentate gyrus, and increased nNOS activity in this structure. However, when nNOS or sGC were inhibited, the number of sensitized animals was reduced, and the threshold to generate LTP was increased. The opposite occurred when cGMP availability was increased.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate a key role of the nNOS activity and NO/sGC/cGMP signaling pathway in the development of cocaine sensitization and in the associated enhancement of hippocampal synaptic transmission.

Protein kinase G regulates dopamine release, ΔFosB expression, and locomotor activity after repeated cocaine administration: involvement of dopamine D2 receptors

Protein kinase G (PKG) activation has been implicated in the regulation of synaptic plasticity in the brain. This study was conducted to determine the involvement of PKG-associated dopamine D2 (D2) receptors in the regulation of dopamine release, ΔFosB expression and locomotor activity in response to repeated cocaine exposure. Repeated systemic injections of cocaine (20 mg/kg), once a day for seven consecutive days, increased cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) and extracellular dopamine concentrations in the dorsal striatum. Inhibition of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), cGMP or PKG and stimulation of D2 receptors decreased the repeated cocaine-induced increase in dopamine concentrations. Similar results were obtained by the combining nNOS, cGMP or PKG inhibition with stimulation of D2 receptors. Parallel to these data, PKG inhibition, D2 receptor stimulation, and combining PKG inhibition with stimulation of D2 receptors decreased the repeated cocaine-induced increases in ΔFosB expression and locomotor activity. These findings suggest that control of D2 receptors by PKG activation after repeated cocaine is responsible for upregulating dopamine release and sustained long-term changes in gene expression in the dopamine terminals and gamma-aminobutyric acid neurons of the dorsal striatum, respectively. This upregulation may contribute to behavioral changes in response to repeated exposure to cocaine.

Relationships between the firing of identified striatal interneurons and spontaneous and driven cortical activities in vivo

The striatum is comprised of medium-sized spiny projection neurons (MSNs) and several types of interneuron, and receives massive glutamatergic input from the cerebral cortex. Understanding of striatal function requires definition of the electrophysiological properties of neurochemically identified interneurons sampled in the same context of ongoing cortical activity in vivo. To address this, we recorded the firing of cholinergic interneurons (expressing choline acetyltransferase; ChAT) and GABAergic interneurons expressing parvalbumin (PV) or nitric oxide synthase (NOS), as well as MSNs, in anesthetized rats during cortically defined brain states. Depending on the cortical state, these interneurons were partly distinguished from each other, and MSNs, on the basis of firing rate and/or pattern. During slow-wave activity (SWA), ChAT+ interneurons, and some PV+ and NOS+ interneurons, were tonically active; NOS+ interneurons fired prominent bursts but, contrary to investigations in vitro, these were not typical low-threshold spike bursts. Identified MSNs, and other PV+ and NOS+ interneurons, were phasically active. Contrasting with ChAT+ interneurons, whose firing showed poor brain state dependency, PV+ and NOS+ interneurons displayed robust firing increases and decreases, respectively, upon spontaneous or driven transitions from SWA to cortical activation. The firing of most neurons was phase locked to cortical slow oscillations, but only PV+ and ChAT+ interneurons also fired in time with cortical spindle and gamma oscillations. Complementing this diverse temporal coupling, each interneuron type exhibited distinct responses to cortical stimulation. Thus, these striatal interneuron types have distinct temporal signatures in vivo, including relationships to spontaneous and driven cortical activities, which likely underpin their specialized contributions to striatal microcircuit function.

Nitric oxide has differential effects on currents in different subsets of Manduca sexta antennal lobe neurons

Nitric oxide has been shown to regulate many biological systems including olfaction. In the moth olfactory system nitric oxide is produced in the antennal lobe in response to odor stimulation and has complex effects on the activity of both projection neurons and local interneurons. To examine the cell autonomous effects of nitric oxide on these cells, we used patch-clamp recording in conjunction with pharmacological manipulation of nitric oxide to test the hypothesis that nitric oxide differentially regulates the channel properties of these different antennal lobe neuron subsets. We found that nitric oxide caused increasing inward currents in a subset of projection neurons while the effects on local neurons were variable but consistent within identifiable morphological subtypes.

Complex autonomous firing patterns of striatal low-threshold spike interneurons

During sensorimotor learning, tonically active neurons (TANs) in the striatum acquire bursts and pauses in their firing based on the salience of the stimulus. Striatal cholinergic interneurons display tonic intrinsic firing, even in the absence of synaptic input, that resembles TAN activity seen in vivo. However, whether there are other striatal neurons among the group identified as TANs is unknown. We used transgenic mice expressing green fluorescent protein under control of neuronal nitric oxide synthase or neuropeptide-Y promoters to aid in identifying low-threshold spike (LTS) interneurons in brain slices. We found that these neurons exhibit autonomous firing consisting of spontaneous transitions between regular, irregular, and burst firing, similar to cholinergic interneurons. As in cholinergic interneurons, these firing patterns arise from interactions between multiple intrinsic oscillatory mechanisms, but the mechanisms responsible differ. Both neurons maintain tonic firing because of persistent sodium currents, but the mechanisms of the subthreshold oscillations responsible for irregular firing are different. In LTS interneurons they rely on depolarization-activated noninactivating calcium currents, whereas those in cholinergic interneurons arise from a hyperpolarization-activated potassium conductance. Sustained membrane hyperpolarizations induce a bursting pattern in LTS interneurons, probably by recruiting a low-threshold, inactivating calcium conductance and by moving the membrane potential out of the activation range of the oscillatory mechanisms responsible for single spiking, in contrast to the bursting driven by noninactivating currents in cholinergic interneurons. The complex intrinsic firing patterns of LTS interneurons may subserve differential release of classic and peptide neurotransmitters as well as nitric oxide.

Inhibition of striatal soluble guanylyl cyclase-cGMP signaling reverses basal ganglia dysfunction and akinesia in experimental parkinsonism

OBJECTIVE

There is clearly a necessity to identify novel non-dopaminergic mechanisms as new therapeutic targets for Parkinson's disease (PD). Among these, the soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC)-cGMP signaling cascade is emerging as a promising candidate for second messenger-based therapies for the amelioration of PD symptoms. In the present study, we examined the utility of the selective sGC inhibitor 1H-[1], [2], [4] oxadiazolo-[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ) for reversing basal ganglia dysfunction and akinesia in animal models of PD.

METHODS

The utility of the selective sGC inhibitor ODQ for reversing biochemical, electrophysiological, histochemical, and behavioral correlates of experimental PD was performed in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats and mice chronically treated with MPTP.

RESULTS

We found that one systemic administration of ODQ is sufficient to reverse the characteristic elevations in striatal cGMP levels, striatal output neuron activity, and metabolic activity in the subthalamic nucleus observed in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. The latter outcome was reproduced after intrastriatal infusion of ODQ. Systemic administration of ODQ was also effective in improving deficits in forelimb akinesia induced by 6-OHDA and MPTP.

INTERPRETATION

Pharmacological inhibition of the sGC-cGMP signaling pathway is a promising non-dopaminergic treatment strategy for restoring basal ganglia dysfunction and attenuating motor symptoms associated with PD.

Nitric Oxide-Soluble Guanylyl Cyclase-Cyclic GMP Signaling in the Striatum: New Targets for the Treatment of Parkinson's Disease?

Striatal nitric oxide (NO)-producing interneurons play an important role in the regulation of corticostriatal synaptic transmission and motor behavior. Striatal NO synthesis is driven by concurrent activation of NMDA and dopamine (DA) D1 receptors. NO diffuses into the dendrites of medium-sized spiny neurons which contain high levels of NO receptors called soluble guanylyl cyclases (sGC). NO-mediated activation of sGC leads to the synthesis of the second messenger cGMP. In the intact striatum, transient elevations in intracellular cGMP primarily act to increase neuronal excitability and to facilitate glutamatergic corticostriatal transmission. NO–cGMP signaling also functionally opposes the inhibitory effects of DA D2 receptor activation on corticostriatal transmission. Not surprisingly, abnormal striatal NO–sGC–cGMP signaling becomes apparent following striatal DA depletion, an alteration thought to contribute to pathophysiological changes observed in basal ganglia circuits in Parkinson's disease (PD). Here, we discuss recent developments in the field which have shed light on the role of NO–sGC–cGMP signaling pathways in basal ganglia dysfunction and motor symptoms associated with PD and l-DOPA-induced dyskinesias.

Interactions between Procedural Learning and Cocaine Exposure Alter Spontaneous and Cortically Evoked Spike Activity in the Dorsal Striatum

We have previously shown that cocaine enhances gene regulation in the sensorimotor striatum associated with procedural learning in a running-wheel paradigm. Here we assessed whether cocaine produces enduring modifications of learning-related changes in striatal neuron activity, using single-unit recordings in anesthetized rats 1 day after the wheel training. Spontaneous and cortically evoked spike activity was compared between groups treated with cocaine or vehicle immediately prior to the running-wheel training or placement in a locked wheel (control conditions). We found that wheel training in vehicle-treated rats increased the average firing rate of spontaneously active neurons without changing the relative proportion of active to quiescent cells. In contrast, in rats trained under the influence of cocaine, the proportion of spontaneously firing to quiescent cells was significantly greater than in vehicle-treated, trained rats. However, this effect was associated with a lower average firing rate in these spontaneously active cells, suggesting that training under the influence of cocaine recruited additional low-firing cells. Measures of cortically evoked activity revealed a second interaction between cocaine treatment and wheel training, namely, a cocaine-induced decrease in spike onset latency in control rats (locked wheel). This facilitatory effect of cocaine was abolished when rats trained in the running wheel during cocaine action. These findings highlight important interactions between cocaine and procedural learning, which act to modify population firing activity and the responsiveness of striatal neurons to excitatory inputs. Moreover, these effects were found 24 h after the training and last drug exposure indicating that cocaine exposure during the learning phase triggers long-lasting changes in synaptic plasticity in the dorsal striatum. Such changes may contribute to the transition from recreational to habitual or compulsive drug taking behavior.