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Lumaca M, Bonetti L, Brattico E, Baggio G, Ravignani A, Vuust P. High-fidelity transmission of auditory symbolic material is associated with reduced right-left neuroanatomical asymmetry between primary auditory regions. Cereb Cortex 2023:7005170. [PMID: 36702496 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhad009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The intergenerational stability of auditory symbolic systems, such as music, is thought to rely on brain processes that allow the faithful transmission of complex sounds. Little is known about the functional and structural aspects of the human brain which support this ability, with a few studies pointing to the bilateral organization of auditory networks as a putative neural substrate. Here, we further tested this hypothesis by examining the role of left-right neuroanatomical asymmetries between auditory cortices. We collected neuroanatomical images from a large sample of participants (nonmusicians) and analyzed them with Freesurfer's surface-based morphometry method. Weeks after scanning, the same individuals participated in a laboratory experiment that simulated music transmission: the signaling games. We found that high accuracy in the intergenerational transmission of an artificial tone system was associated with reduced rightward asymmetry of cortical thickness in Heschl's sulcus. Our study suggests that the high-fidelity copying of melodic material may rely on the extent to which computational neuronal resources are distributed across hemispheres. Our data further support the role of interhemispheric brain organization in the cultural transmission and evolution of auditory symbolic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Lumaca
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University & The Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg, Aarhus C 8000, Denmark
| | - Leonardo Bonetti
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University & The Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg, Aarhus C 8000, Denmark.,Centre for Eudaimonia and Human Flourishing, Linacre College, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9BX, United Kingdom.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom.,Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, Bologna 40127, Italy
| | - Elvira Brattico
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University & The Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg, Aarhus C 8000, Denmark.,Department of Education, Psychology, Communication, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari 70122, Italy
| | - Giosuè Baggio
- Language Acquisition and Language Processing Lab, Department of Language and Literature, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim 7941, Norway
| | - Andrea Ravignani
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University & The Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg, Aarhus C 8000, Denmark.,Comparative Bioacoustics Group, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen 6525 XD, Netherlands
| | - Peter Vuust
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University & The Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg, Aarhus C 8000, Denmark
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Scharinger M, Knoop CA, Wagner V, Menninghaus W. Neural processing of poems and songs is based on melodic properties. Neuroimage 2022; 257:119310. [PMID: 35569784 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural processing of speech and music is still a matter of debate. A long tradition that assumes shared processing capacities for the two domains contrasts with views that assume domain-specific processing. We here contribute to this topic by investigating, in a functional magnetic imaging (fMRI) study, ecologically valid stimuli that are identical in wording and differ only in that one group is typically spoken (or silently read), whereas the other is sung: poems and their respective musical settings. We focus on the melodic properties of spoken poems and their sung musical counterparts by looking at proportions of significant autocorrelations (PSA) based on pitch values extracted from their recordings. Following earlier studies, we assumed a bias of poem-processing towards the left and a bias for song-processing on the right hemisphere. Furthermore, PSA values of poems and songs were expected to explain variance in left- vs. right-temporal brain areas, while continuous liking ratings obtained in the scanner should modulate activity in the reward network. Overall, poem processing compared to song processing relied on left temporal regions, including the superior temporal gyrus, whereas song processing compared to poem processing recruited more right temporal areas, including Heschl's gyrus and the superior temporal gyrus. PSA values co-varied with activation in bilateral temporal regions for poems, and in right-dominant fronto-temporal regions for songs. Continuous liking ratings were correlated with activity in the default mode network for both poems and songs. The pattern of results suggests that the neural processing of poems and their musical settings is based on their melodic properties, supported by bilateral temporal auditory areas and an additional right fronto-temporal network known to be implicated in the processing of melodies in songs. These findings take a middle ground in providing evidence for specific processing circuits for speech and music in the left and right hemisphere, but simultaneously for shared processing of melodic aspects of both poems and their musical settings in the right temporal cortex. Thus, we demonstrate the neurobiological plausibility of assuming the importance of melodic properties in spoken and sung aesthetic language alike, along with the involvement of the default mode network in the aesthetic appreciation of these properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Scharinger
- Department of Language and Literature, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt, Germany; Research Group Phonetics, Institute of German Linguistics, Philipps-University Marburg, Pilgrimstein 16, Marburg 35032, Germany; Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior, Universities of Marburg and Gießen, Germany.
| | - Christine A Knoop
- Department of Language and Literature, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt, Germany; Department of Music, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Valentin Wagner
- Department of Language and Literature, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt, Germany; Experimental Psychology Unit, Helmut Schmidt University / University of the Federal Armed Forces Hamburg, Germany
| | - Winfried Menninghaus
- Department of Language and Literature, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt, Germany
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Jorgensen AR, Whitehouse AJO, Fox AM, Maybery MT. Delayed cortical processing of auditory stimuli in children with autism spectrum disorder: A meta-analysis of electrophysiological studies. Brain Cogn 2021; 150:105709. [PMID: 33774338 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2021.105709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Several researchers have hypothesised that individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) show encoding delays in their obligatory event-related potentials (ERPs)/ event-related fields (ERFs) for low-level auditory information compared to neurotypical (NT) samples. However, empirical research has yielded varied findings, such as low-level auditory processing in ASD samples being unimpaired, superior, or impaired compared to NT samples. Diverse outcomes have also been reported for studies investigating ASD-NT differences in functional lateralisation of delays. The lack of consistency across studies has prevented a comprehensive understanding of the overall effects in the autistic population. Therefore, this meta-analysis compared long-latency ERPs and ERFs produced by autistic and NT individuals to non-linguistic auditory stimuli to test, firstly, the robustness of auditory processing differences and, secondly, whether these differences are observed in one or both hemispheres. Nine articles meeting the inclusion criteria were included in the meta-analysis. Meta-analytic results indicated that autistic individuals demonstrate bilaterally delayed P1/ M50 peaks and lateralised delays in the right but not left hemisphere N1/ M100 peak. These results further inform our understanding of auditory processing and lateralisation across the autism spectrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna R Jorgensen
- School of Psychological Science, The University of Western Australia, M304, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia.
| | - Andrew J O Whitehouse
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Northern Entrance, Perth Children's Hospital, 15 Hospital Ave, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Allison M Fox
- School of Psychological Science, The University of Western Australia, M304, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Murray T Maybery
- School of Psychological Science, The University of Western Australia, M304, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia
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Pinheiro AP, Schwartze M, Gutierrez F, Kotz SA. When temporal prediction errs: ERP responses to delayed action-feedback onset. Neuropsychologia 2019; 134:107200. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Dacewicz A, Szymaszek A, Nowak K, Szelag E. Training-Induced Changes in Rapid Auditory Processing in Children With Specific Language Impairment: Electrophysiological Indicators. Front Hum Neurosci 2018; 12:310. [PMID: 30131683 PMCID: PMC6091056 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain’s ability to recognize acoustic changes occurring in rapid temporal succession is important for speech and successful language development. Children with specific language impairment (SLI) are characterized by deficient dynamics of temporal information processing (TIP) in the millisecond time range accompanied by disordered language development. Furthermore, previous studies have found that intervention based on amelioration of TIP resulted in improvement of both language and other cognitive functions. This study aimed to explain the changes associated with TIP training from the perspective of event-related potentials (ERPs). Thirty-six children aged 5–8 years (26 boys, 10 girls) diagnosed with SLI underwent two types of intense audio-visual computer intervention: experimental TIP training targeted at the millisecond time range (n = 18) or control non-TIP training (n = 18). Paired 50 ms tones of 1000 Hz and 1200 Hz were presented with inter-stimulus intervals (ISIs) of either 50 ms (Short ISI Condition) or 200 ms (Long ISI Condition). Auditory ERPs were measured in a passive oddball paradigm before and after each type of training. The mismatch negativity (MMN) paradigm was applied as an electrophysiological indicator of the brain’s ability to automatically detect violations of regularity in paired tones presented in rapid succession. Moreover, the P3a component was also analyzed. After 24 sessions of temporal training (in the experimental group) MMN amplitude enhancement was observed in both ISI conditions, reflecting increased efficiency in perceiving changes in rapid auditory sequences. In both experimental and control groups, P3a amplitude was enhanced in both ISIs. This may be due to the improvement of involuntary attention shifting to the auditory events involved in each training type. To conclude, temporal training, compared to non-temporal control training, improved the ability to detect changes in a rapid auditory stream in children with SLI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Dacewicz
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Aneta Szymaszek
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Kamila Nowak
- Laboratory of Social Psychology, Department of Ergonomics, Central Institute for Labour Protection-National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Elzbieta Szelag
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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Clunies-Ross KL, Campbell C, Ohan JL, Anderson M, Reid C, Fox AM. Hemispheric asymmetries in rapid temporal processing at age 7 predict subsequent phonemic decoding 2 years later: A longitudinal event-related potential (ERP) study. Neuropsychologia 2018; 111:252-260. [PMID: 29410292 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.01.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The asymmetric sampling in time hypothesis (AST) suggests that the left and right secondary auditory areas process auditory stimuli according to different sampling rates (Poeppel, 2003). We investigated whether asymmetries consistent with the AST are observable in children at age 7 and whether they become more pronounced at age 9. Data were collected from 50 children who attended a 2-day research program at age 7 and were followed up 2 years later. At both time points, children were presented with tone-pairs, each composed of two 50 ms, 1000 Hz, sinusoidal tones separated by inter-stimulus intervals (ISIs) of 25, 50, 100, or 200 ms. Stimuli were presented binaurally whilst the EEG was recorded. The Ta and Tb, which are components of the auditory event-related potential (ERP), were used as electrophysiological indices of auditory processing. There was no significant effect of age on Ta or Tb responses. Tb responses to the second tone of tone-pairs indicated a left-hemisphere preference for rapidly presented stimuli (50 ms ISI) and a right hemisphere preference for more slowly presented stimuli (100 and 200 ms ISI). The results provide evidence that auditory areas of the left hemisphere preferentially respond to fast temporal rates, and those of the right hemisphere preferentially respond to slow temporal rates in children at age 7 and 9. In 7-year-old children, leftward lateralisation of responses to rapidly presented tones predicted better phonemic decoding ability 2 years later, which suggests that hemispheric specialisation may be a precursor for subsequent phonemic decoding skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen L Clunies-Ross
- Neurocognitive Development Unit, School of Psychological Science, The University of Western Australia, M304, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia.
| | - Catherine Campbell
- Neurocognitive Development Unit, School of Psychological Science, The University of Western Australia, M304, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Jeneva L Ohan
- Neurocognitive Development Unit, School of Psychological Science, The University of Western Australia, M304, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Mike Anderson
- Neurocognitive Development Unit, School of Psychological Science, The University of Western Australia, M304, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Corinne Reid
- Neurocognitive Development Unit, School of Psychological Science, The University of Western Australia, M304, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Allison M Fox
- Neurocognitive Development Unit, School of Psychological Science, The University of Western Australia, M304, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia
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Aytemür A, Almeida N, Lee KH. Differential sensory cortical involvement in auditory and visual sensorimotor temporal recalibration: Evidence from transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Neuropsychologia 2017; 96:122-128. [PMID: 28089696 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Adaptation to delayed sensory feedback following an action produces a subjective time compression between the action and the feedback (temporal recalibration effect, TRE). TRE is important for sensory delay compensation to maintain a relationship between causally related events. It is unclear whether TRE is a sensory modality-specific phenomenon. In 3 experiments employing a sensorimotor synchronization task, we investigated this question using cathodal transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS). We found that cathodal tDCS over the visual cortex, and to a lesser extent over the auditory cortex, produced decreased visual TRE. However, both auditory and visual cortex tDCS did not produce any measurable effects on auditory TRE. Our study revealed different nature of TRE in auditory and visual domains. Visual-motor TRE, which is more variable than auditory TRE, is a sensory modality-specific phenomenon, modulated by the auditory cortex. The robustness of auditory-motor TRE, unaffected by tDCS, suggests the dominance of the auditory system in temporal processing, by providing a frame of reference in the realignment of sensorimotor timing signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Aytemür
- Departments of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Nathalia Almeida
- Departments of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Kwang-Hyuk Lee
- Departments of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.
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Ervast L, Hämäläinen JA, Zachau S, Lohvansuu K, Heinänen K, Veijola M, Heikkinen E, Suominen K, Luotonen M, Lehtihalmes M, Leppänen PHT. Event-related brain potentials to change in the frequency and temporal structure of sounds in typically developing 5-6-year-old children. Int J Psychophysiol 2015; 98:413-25. [PMID: 26342552 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2015] [Revised: 08/14/2015] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The brain's ability to recognize different acoustic cues (e.g., frequency changes in rapid temporal succession) is important for speech perception and thus for successful language development. Here we report on distinct event-related potentials (ERPs) in 5-6-year-old children recorded in a passive oddball paradigm to repeated tone pair stimuli with a frequency change in the second tone in the pair, replicating earlier findings. An occasional insertion of a third tone within the tone pair generated a more merged pattern, which has not been reported previously in 5-6-year-old children. Both types of deviations elicited pre-attentive discriminative mismatch negativity (MMN) and late discriminative negativity (LDN) responses. Temporal principal component analysis (tPCA) showed a similar topographical pattern with fronto-central negativity for MMN and LDN. We also found a previously unreported discriminative response complex (P340-N440) at the temporal electrode sites at about 140 ms and 240 ms after the frequency deviance, which we suggest reflects a discriminative processing of frequency change. The P340 response was positive with a clear radial distribution preceding the fronto-central frequency MMN by about 30 ms. The results indicate that 5-6-year-old children can detect frequency change and the occasional insertion of an additional tone in sound pairs as reflected by MMN and LDN, even with quite short within-stimulus intervals (150 ms and 50 ms). Furthermore, MMN for these changes is preceded by another response to deviancy, temporal P340, which seems to reflect a parallel but earlier discriminatory process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leena Ervast
- Logopedics and Child Language Research Center, Faculty of Humanities, P.O. Box 1000, 90014, University of Oulu, Finland; Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Neurocognitive Unit, Oulu University Hospital, P.O. Box 50, 90029, Oulu University Hospital, Finland.
| | - Jarmo A Hämäläinen
- Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 35, 40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Swantje Zachau
- Logopedics and Child Language Research Center, Faculty of Humanities, P.O. Box 1000, 90014, University of Oulu, Finland; Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Neurocognitive Unit, Oulu University Hospital, P.O. Box 50, 90029, Oulu University Hospital, Finland
| | - Kaisa Lohvansuu
- Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 35, 40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Kaisu Heinänen
- Logopedics and Child Language Research Center, Faculty of Humanities, P.O. Box 1000, 90014, University of Oulu, Finland; Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Neurocognitive Unit, Oulu University Hospital, P.O. Box 50, 90029, Oulu University Hospital, Finland
| | - Mari Veijola
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Neurocognitive Unit, Oulu University Hospital, P.O. Box 50, 90029, Oulu University Hospital, Finland; Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Oulu University Hospital, P.O. Box 21, 90029, Oulu University Hospital, Finland
| | - Elisa Heikkinen
- Logopedics and Child Language Research Center, Faculty of Humanities, P.O. Box 1000, 90014, University of Oulu, Finland; Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Neurocognitive Unit, Oulu University Hospital, P.O. Box 50, 90029, Oulu University Hospital, Finland
| | - Kalervo Suominen
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Neurocognitive Unit, Oulu University Hospital, P.O. Box 50, 90029, Oulu University Hospital, Finland
| | - Mirja Luotonen
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Oulu University Hospital, P.O. Box 21, 90029, Oulu University Hospital, Finland
| | - Matti Lehtihalmes
- Logopedics and Child Language Research Center, Faculty of Humanities, P.O. Box 1000, 90014, University of Oulu, Finland
| | - Paavo H T Leppänen
- Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 35, 40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
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Chait M, Greenberg S, Arai T, Simon JZ, Poeppel D. Multi-time resolution analysis of speech: evidence from psychophysics. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:214. [PMID: 26136650 PMCID: PMC4468943 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
How speech signals are analyzed and represented remains a foundational challenge both for cognitive science and neuroscience. A growing body of research, employing various behavioral and neurobiological experimental techniques, now points to the perceptual relevance of both phoneme-sized (10-40 Hz modulation frequency) and syllable-sized (2-10 Hz modulation frequency) units in speech processing. However, it is not clear how information associated with such different time scales interacts in a manner relevant for speech perception. We report behavioral experiments on speech intelligibility employing a stimulus that allows us to investigate how distinct temporal modulations in speech are treated separately and whether they are combined. We created sentences in which the slow (~4 Hz; Slow) and rapid (~33 Hz; Shigh) modulations-corresponding to ~250 and ~30 ms, the average duration of syllables and certain phonetic properties, respectively-were selectively extracted. Although Slow and Shigh have low intelligibility when presented separately, dichotic presentation of Shigh with Slow results in supra-additive performance, suggesting a synergistic relationship between low- and high-modulation frequencies. A second experiment desynchronized presentation of the Slow and Shigh signals. Desynchronizing signals relative to one another had no impact on intelligibility when delays were less than ~45 ms. Longer delays resulted in a steep intelligibility decline, providing further evidence of integration or binding of information within restricted temporal windows. Our data suggest that human speech perception uses multi-time resolution processing. Signals are concurrently analyzed on at least two separate time scales, the intermediate representations of these analyses are integrated, and the resulting bound percept has significant consequences for speech intelligibility-a view compatible with recent insights from neuroscience implicating multi-timescale auditory processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Chait
- Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program, University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA ; Department of Linguistics, University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA
| | | | - Takayuki Arai
- Department of Information and Communication Sciences, Sophia University Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jonathan Z Simon
- Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program, University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA ; Department of Biology, University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA ; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA ; Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA
| | - David Poeppel
- Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program, University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA ; Department of Linguistics, University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA ; Department of Psychology, New York University New York, NY, USA ; Department of Neuroscience, Max-Planck-Institute Frankfurt, Germany
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