Simulation analysis of intracellular Na+ and Cl− homeostasis during β1-adrenergic stimulation of cardiac myocyte

Computational modeling approaches to cAMP/PKA signaling in cardiomyocytes

The cAMP/PKA pathway is a fundamental regulator of excitation-contraction coupling in cardiomyocytes. Activation of cAMP has a variety of downstream effects on cardiac function including enhanced contraction, accelerated relaxation, adaptive stress response, mitochondrial regulation, and gene transcription. Experimental advances have shed light on the compartmentation of cAMP and PKA, which allow for control over the varied targets of these second messengers and is disrupted in heart failure conditions. Computational modeling is an important tool for understanding the spatial and temporal complexities of this system. In this review article, we outline the advances in computational modeling that have allowed for deeper understanding of cAMP/PKA dynamics in the cardiomyocyte in health and disease, and explore new modeling frameworks that may bring us closer to a more complete understanding of this system. We outline various compartmental and spatial signaling models that have been used to understand how β-adrenergic signaling pathways function in a variety of simulation conditions. We also discuss newer subcellular models of cardiovascular function that may be used as templates for the next phase of computational study of cAMP and PKA in the heart, and outline open challenges which are important to consider in future models.

Multiple Dynamical Mechanisms of Phase-2 Early Afterdepolarizations in a Human Ventricular Myocyte Model: Involvement of Spontaneous SR Ca 2+ Release

Early afterdepolarization (EAD) is known to cause lethal ventricular arrhythmias in long QT syndrome (LQTS). In this study, dynamical mechanisms of EAD formation in human ventricular myocytes (HVMs) were investigated using the mathematical model developed by ten Tusscher and Panfilov (Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 291, 2006). We explored how the rapid (IKr) and slow (IKs) components of delayed-rectifier K+ channel currents, L-type Ca2+ channel current (ICa L), Na+/Ca2+ exchanger current (INCX), and intracellular Ca2+ handling via the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) contribute to initiation, termination and modulation of phase-2 EADs during pacing in relation to bifurcation phenomena in non-paced model cells. Parameter-dependent dynamical behaviors of the non-paced model cell were determined by calculating stabilities of equilibrium points (EPs) and limit cycles, and bifurcation points to construct bifurcation diagrams. Action potentials (APs) and EADs during pacing were reproduced by numerical simulations for constructing phase diagrams of the paced model cell dynamics. Results are summarized as follows: (1) A modified version of the ten Tusscher-Panfilov model with accelerated ICaL inactivation could reproduce bradycardia-related EADs in LQTS type 2 and β-adrenergic stimulation-induced EADs in LQTS type 1. (2) Two types of EADs with different initiation mechanisms, ICaL reactivation-dependent and spontaneous SR Ca2+ release-mediated EADs, were detected. (3) Termination of EADs (AP repolarization) during pacing depended on the slow activation of IKs. (4) Spontaneous SR Ca2+ releases occurred at higher Ca2+ uptake rates, attributable to the instability of steady-state intracellular Ca2+ concentrations. Dynamical mechanisms of EAD formation and termination in the paced model cell are closely related to stability changes (bifurcations) in dynamical behaviors of the non-paced model cell, but they are model-dependent. Nevertheless, the modified ten Tusscher-Panfilov model would be useful for systematically investigating possible dynamical mechanisms of EAD-related arrhythmias in LQTS.

Na-K-2Cl Cotransporter and Store-Operated Ca2+ Entry in Pacemaking by Interstitial Cells of Cajal

Pacemaker depolarization in interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) is believed to be induced by Ca²⁺ transients and activation of anoctamin-1 (Ano1) channels in the plasma membrane. However, block of store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) or the Na-K-2Cl cotransporter (NKCC1) terminates pacemaker activity in ICC, indicating these transporters are involved in the initiation or maintenance of pacemaker activity. We hypothesized that SOCE contributes to pacemaker depolarization by maintaining [Ca²⁺] in the endoplasmic reticulum, which is the underlying source of Ca²⁺ transients for activation of Ano1. NKCC1 maintains the Cl^- gradient supporting the driving force for inward current mediated by Ano1. Currently mechanisms sustaining release of Ca²⁺ and activation of Ano1 channels during the plateau phase of slow waves are unknown, but the reverse mode of the Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchange may contribute. We generated a mathematical model of pacemaker activity based on current empirical observations from ICC of mouse small intestine that incorporates functions of SOCE and NKCC1. This model reproduces experimental findings, suggesting roles for SOCE and Ano1 channels: blocking of either NKCC1 or SOCE in our model terminates pacemaker activity. Direct contribution of NKCC1 to pacemaker activity in a beat-to-beat manner is not predicted by our model. Instead, NKCC1 plays a maintenance role supporting the driving force for Cl^- efflux. Incorporation of SOCE allows the model to drive pacemaker activity without a diastolic depolarization, as observed in cardiac pacemaking. Further biological experiments are necessary to validate and further refine the roles of NKCC1, Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchange, and Ano1 in the pacemaker mechanism of ICC.

Mechanisms Underlying Spontaneous Action Potential Generation Induced by Catecholamine in Pulmonary Vein Cardiomyocytes: A Simulation Study

Cardiomyocytes and myocardial sleeves dissociated from pulmonary veins (PVs) potentially generate ectopic automaticity in response to noradrenaline (NA), and thereby trigger atrial fibrillation. We developed a mathematical model of rat PV cardiomyocytes (PVC) based on experimental data that incorporates the microscopic framework of the local control theory of Ca²⁺ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), which can generate rhythmic Ca²⁺ release (limit cycle revealed by the bifurcation analysis) when total Ca²⁺ within the cell increased. Ca²⁺ overload in SR increased resting Ca²⁺ efflux through the type II inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃) receptors (InsP₃R) as well as ryanodine receptors (RyRs), which finally triggered massive Ca²⁺ release through activation of RyRs via local Ca²⁺ accumulation in the vicinity of RyRs. The new PVC model exhibited a resting potential of −68 mV. Under NA effects, repetitive Ca²⁺ release from SR triggered spontaneous action potentials (APs) by evoking transient depolarizations (TDs) through Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger (AP_TDs). Marked and variable latencies initiating AP_TDs could be explained by the time courses of the α1- and β1-adrenergic influence on the regulation of intracellular Ca²⁺ content and random occurrences of spontaneous TD activating the first AP_TD. Positive and negative feedback relations were clarified under AP_TD generation.

A Preliminary Computational Model for Hypoxic Acidosis in Cardiac Myocytes

Intracellular acidosis induced by hypoxia resulted from myocardial ischemia damages myocardium. However, the detailed mechanisms of hypoxic acidosis are not quantitatively explained. The purpose of this study is to create a novel computational model which can reproduce intracellular acidosis caused by myocardial ischemia. We constructed a computational model of myocardium, by using a mathematical ventricular cell model which includes pH regulation and a computational model of myocardial microcirculation for calculating extracellular conditions. The present model reproduced cellular hypoxia in an ischemic condition simulated by a reduced blood flow, and intracellular pH reduction in response to the hypoxia.

Investigating β-adrenergic-induced cardiac hypertrophy through computational approach: classical and non-classical pathways

The chronic stimulation of β-adrenergic receptors plays a crucial role in cardiac hypertrophy and its progression to heart failure. In β-adrenergic signaling, in addition to the well-established classical pathway, Gs/AC/cAMP/PKA, activation of non-classical pathways such as Gi/PI3K/Akt/GSK3β and Gi/Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK contribute in cardiac hypertrophy. The signaling network of β-adrenergic-induced hypertrophy is very complex and not fully understood. So, we use a computational approach to investigate the dynamic response and contribution of β-adrenergic mediators in cardiac hypertrophy. The proposed computational model provides insights into the effects of β-adrenergic classical and non-classical pathways on the activity of hypertrophic transcription factors CREB and GATA4. The results illustrate that the model captures the dynamics of the main signaling mediators and reproduces the experimental observations well. The results also show that despite the low portion of β2 receptors out of total cardiac β-adrenergic receptors, their contribution in the activation of hypertrophic mediators and regulation of β-adrenergic-induced hypertrophy is noticeable and variations in β1/β2 receptors ratio greatly affect the ISO-induced hypertrophic response. The model results illustrate that GSK3β deactivation after β-adrenergic receptor stimulation has a major influence on CREB and GATA4 activation and consequent cardiac hypertrophy. Also, it is found through sensitivity analysis that PKB (Akt) activation has both pro-hypertrophic and anti-hypertrophic effects in β-adrenergic signaling.

Distinct physiological effects of β1- and β2-adrenoceptors in mouse ventricular myocytes: insights from a compartmentalized mathematical model

The β1- and β2-adrenergic signaling systems play different roles in the functioning of cardiac cells. Experimental data show that the activation of the β1-adrenergic signaling system produces significant inotropic, lusitropic, and chronotropic effects in the heart, whereas the effects of the β2-adrenergic signaling system is less apparent. In this paper, a comprehensive compartmentalized experimentally based mathematical model of the combined β1- and β2-adrenergic signaling systems in mouse ventricular myocytes is developed to simulate the experimental findings and make testable predictions of the behavior of the cardiac cells under different physiological conditions. Simulations describe the dynamics of major signaling molecules in different subcellular compartments; kinetics and magnitudes of phosphorylation of ion channels, transporters, and Ca2+ handling proteins; modifications of action potential shape and duration; and [Ca2+]i and [Na+]i dynamics upon stimulation of β1- and β2-adrenergic receptors (β1- and β2-ARs). The model reveals physiological conditions when β2-ARs do not produce significant physiological effects and when their effects can be measured experimentally. Simulations demonstrated that stimulation of β2-ARs with isoproterenol caused a marked increase in the magnitude of the L-type Ca2+ current, [Ca2+]i transient, and phosphorylation of phospholamban only upon additional application of pertussis toxin or inhibition of phosphodiesterases of type 3 and 4. The model also made testable predictions of the changes in magnitudes of [Ca2+]i and [Na+]i fluxes, the rate of decay of [Na+]i concentration upon both combined and separate stimulation of β1- and β2-ARs, and the contribution of phosphorylation of PKA targets to the changes in the action potential and [Ca2+]i transient.

Developmental changes in the balance of glycolytic ATP production and oxidative phosphorylation in ventricular cells: A simulation study

The developmental program of the heart requires accurate regulation to ensure continuous circulation and simultaneous cardiac morphogenesis, because any functional abnormalities may progress to congenital heart malformation. Notably, energy metabolism in fetal ventricular cells is regulated in a manner that differs from adult ventricular cells: fetal cardiomyocytes generally have immature mitochondria and fetal ventricular cells show greater dependence on glycolytic ATP production. However, although various characteristics of energy metabolism in fetal ventricular cells have been reported, to our knowledge, a quantitative description of the contributions of these factors to fetal ventricular cell functions has not yet been established. Here, we constructed a mathematical model to integrate various characteristics of fetal ventricular cells and predicted the contribution of each characteristic to the maintenance of intracellular ATP concentration and sarcomere contraction under anoxic conditions. Our simulation results demonstrated that higher glycogen content, higher hexokinase activity, and lower creatine concentration helped prolong the time for which ventricular cell contraction was maintained under anoxic conditions. The integrated model also enabled us to quantitatively assess the contributions of factors related to energy metabolism in ventricular cells. Because fetal cardiomyocytes exhibit similar energy metabolic profiles to stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes and those in the failing heart, an improved understanding of these fetal ventricular cells will contribute to a better comprehension of the processes in stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes or under pathological conditions.

Ryanodine receptor modification and regulation by intracellular Ca2+ and Mg2+ in healthy and failing human hearts

RATIONALE

Heart failure is a multimodal disorder, of which disrupted Ca²⁺ homeostasis is a hallmark. Central to Ca²⁺ homeostasis is the major cardiac Ca²⁺ release channel - the ryanodine receptor (RyR2) - whose activity is influenced by associated proteins, covalent modification and by Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺. That RyR2 is remodelled and its function disturbed in heart failure is well recognized, but poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

To assess Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ regulation of RyR2 from left ventricles of healthy, cystic fibrosis and failing hearts, and to correlate these functional changes with RyR2 modifications and remodelling.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The function of RyR2 from left ventricular samples was assessed using lipid bilayer single-channel measurements, whilst RyR2 modification and protein:protein interactions were determined using Western Blots and co-immunoprecipitation. In all failing hearts there was an increase in RyR2 activity at end-diastolic cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ (100nM), a decreased cytoplasmic [Ca²⁺] required for half maximal activation (K_a) and a decrease in inhibition by cytoplasmic Mg²⁺. This was accompanied by significant hyperphosphorylation of RyR2 S²⁸⁰⁸ and S²⁸¹⁴, reduced free thiol content and a reduced interaction with FKBP12.0 and FKBP12.6. Either dephosphorylation of RyR2 using PP1 or thiol reduction using DTT eliminated any significant difference in the activity of RyR2 from healthy and failing hearts. We also report a subgroup of RyR2 in failing hearts that were not responsive to regulation by intracellular Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺.

CONCLUSION

Despite different aetiologies, disrupted RyR2 Ca²⁺ sensitivity and biochemical modification of the channel are common constituents of failing heart RyR2 and may underlie the pathological disturbances in intracellular Ca²⁺ signalling.

Dynamical mechanisms of phase-2 early afterdepolarizations in human ventricular myocytes: insights from bifurcation analyses of two mathematical models

Early afterdepolarization (EAD) is known as a cause of ventricular arrhythmias in long QT syndromes. We theoretically investigated how the rapid (I_Kr) and slow (I_Ks) components of delayed-rectifier K⁺ channel currents, L-type Ca²⁺ channel current (I_CaL), Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger current (I_NCX), Na⁺-K⁺ pump current (I_NaK), intracellular Ca²⁺ (Ca_i) handling via sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), and intracellular Na⁺ concentration (Na_i) contribute to initiation, termination, and modulation of phase-2 EADs, using two human ventricular myocyte models. Bifurcation structures of dynamical behaviors in model cells were explored by calculating equilibrium points, limit cycles (LCs), and bifurcation points as functions of parameters. EADs were reproduced by numerical simulations. The results are summarized as follows: 1) decreasing I_Ks and/or I_Kr or increasing I_CaL led to EAD generation, to which mid-myocardial cell models were especially susceptible; the parameter regions of EADs overlapped the regions of stable LCs. 2) Two types of EADs (termination mechanisms), I_Ks activation-dependent and I_CaL inactivation-dependent EADs, were detected; I_Ks was not necessarily required for EAD formation. 3) Inhibiting I_NCX suppressed EADs via facilitating Ca²⁺-dependent I_CaL inactivation. 4) Ca_i dynamics (SR Ca²⁺ handling) and Na_i strongly affected bifurcations and EAD generation in model cells via modulating I_CaL, I_NCX, and I_NaK Parameter regions of EADs, often overlapping those of stable LCs, shifted depending on Ca_i and Na_i in stationary and dynamic states. 5) Bradycardia-related induction of EADs was mainly due to decreases in Na_i at lower pacing rates. This study demonstrates that bifurcation analysis allows us to understand the dynamical mechanisms of EAD formation more profoundly.

NEW & NOTEWORTHY

We investigated mechanisms of phase-2 early afterdepolarization (EAD) by bifurcation analyses of human ventricular myocyte (HVM) models. EAD formation in paced HVMs basically depended on bifurcation phenomena in non-paced HVMs, but was strongly affected by intracellular ion concentrations in stationary and dynamic states. EAD generation did not necessarily require I_Ks.

Mechanisms of pro-arrhythmic abnormalities in ventricular repolarisation and anti-arrhythmic therapies in human hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

INTRODUCTION

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a cause of sudden arrhythmic death, but the understanding of its pro-arrhythmic mechanisms and an effective pharmacological treatment are lacking. HCM electrophysiological remodelling includes both increased inward and reduced outward currents, but their role in promoting repolarisation abnormalities remains unknown. The goal of this study is to identify key ionic mechanisms driving repolarisation abnormalities in human HCM, and to evaluate anti-arrhythmic effects of single and multichannel inward current blocks.

METHODS

Experimental ionic current, action potential (AP) and Ca(2+)-transient (CaT) recordings were used to construct populations of human non-diseased and HCM AP models (n=9118), accounting for inter-subject variability. Simulations were conducted for several degrees of selective and combined inward current block.

RESULTS

Simulated HCM cardiomyocytes exhibited prolonged AP and CaT, diastolic Ca(2+) overload and decreased CaT amplitude, in agreement with experiments. Repolarisation abnormalities in HCM models were consistently driven by L-type Ca(2+) current (ICaL) re-activation, and ICaL block was the most effective intervention to normalise repolarisation and diastolic Ca(2+), but compromised CaT amplitude. Late Na(+) current (INaL) block partially abolished repolarisation abnormalities, with small impact on CaT. Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger (INCX) block effectively restored repolarisation and CaT amplitude, but increased Ca(2+) overload. Multichannel block increased efficacy in normalising repolarisation, AP biomarkers and CaT amplitude compared to selective block.

CONCLUSIONS

Experimentally-calibrated populations of human AP models identify ICaL re-activation as the key mechanism for repolarisation abnormalities in HCM, and combined INCX, INaL and ICaL block as effective anti-arrhythmic therapies also able to partially reverse the HCM electrophysiological phenotype.

Simulation of the effects of moderate stimulation/inhibition of the β1-adrenergic signaling system and its components in mouse ventricular myocytes

The β1-adrenergic signaling system is one of the most important protein signaling systems in cardiac cells. It regulates cardiac action potential duration, intracellular Ca2+concentration ([Ca2+]i) transients, and contraction force. In this paper, a comprehensive experimentally based mathematical model of the β1-adrenergic signaling system for mouse ventricular myocytes is explored to simulate the effects of moderate stimulations of β1-adrenergic receptors (β1-ARs) on the action potential, Ca2+and Na+dynamics, as well as the effects of inhibition of protein kinase A (PKA) and phosphodiesterase of type 4 (PDE4). Simulation results show that the action potential prolongations reach saturating values at relatively small concentrations of isoproterenol (∼0.01 μM), while the [Ca2+]itransient amplitude saturates at significantly larger concentrations (∼0.1–1.0 μM). The differences in the response of Ca2+and Na+fluxes to moderate stimulation of β1-ARs are also observed. Sensitivity analysis of the mathematical model is performed and the model limitations are discussed. The investigated model reproduces most of the experimentally observed effects of moderate stimulation of β1-ARs, PKA, and PDE4 inhibition on the L-type Ca2+current, [Ca2+]itransients, and the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+load and makes testable predictions for the action potential duration and [Ca2+]itransients as functions of isoproterenol concentration.

Electrophysiological properties of iPS cell-derived cardiomyocytes from a patient with long QT syndrome type 1 harboring the novel mutation M437V of KCNQ1

Introduction

Long QT syndrome type 1 (LQT1) is caused by mutations in KCNQ1 coding slowly-activating delayed-rectifier K⁺ channels. We identified the novel missense mutation M437V of KCNQ1 in a LQT1 patient. Here, we employed iPS cell (iPSC)-derived cardiomyocytes to investigate electrophysiological properties of the mutant channel and LQT1 cardiomyocytes.

Methods

To generate iPSCs from the patient and a healthy subject, peripheral blood T cells were reprogrammed by Sendai virus vector encoding human OCT3/4, SOX2, KLF4, and c-MYC. Cardiomyocytes were prepared from iPSCs and human embryonic stem cells using a cytokine-based two-step differentiation method and were subjected to patch clamp experiments.

Results

LQT1 iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes exhibited prolongation of action potential duration (APD), which was due to a reduction of the KCNQ1-mediated current I_Ks; Na⁺, Ca²⁺ and other K⁺ channel currents were comparable. When expressed in HEK293 and COS7 cells, the mutant KCNQ1 was normally expressed in the plasma membrane but generated smaller currents than the wild type. Isoproterenol significantly prolonged APDs of LQT1 cardiomyocytes, while shortening those of healthy ones. A mathematical model for I_Ks-reduced human ventricular myocytes reproduced APD prolongation and generation of early afterdepolarizations (EADs) under β-adrenergic stimulation.

Conclusions

QT prolongation of the LQT1 patient with the mutation M437V of KCNQ1 was caused by I_Ks reduction, which may render the patient vulnerable to generation of EADs and arrhythmias.

•

M437V mutation of KCNQ1 reduces channel conductance without trafficking defect.

•

Reduced I_Ks of the mutant channel accounts for the prolongation of APD and QTc.

•

Lack of medical history in this case is due to relatively small reduction in I_Ks.

•

The patient is more vulnerable to generation of EAD and TdP than healthy subjects.

Quantitative Decomposition of Dynamics of Mathematical Cell Models: Method and Application to Ventricular Myocyte Models

Mathematical cell models are effective tools to understand cellular physiological functions precisely. For detailed analysis of model dynamics in order to investigate how much each component affects cellular behaviour, mathematical approaches are essential. This article presents a numerical analysis technique, which is applicable to any complicated cell model formulated as a system of ordinary differential equations, to quantitatively evaluate contributions of respective model components to the model dynamics in the intact situation. The present technique employs a novel mathematical index for decomposed dynamics with respect to each differential variable, along with a concept named instantaneous equilibrium point, which represents the trend of a model variable at some instant. This article also illustrates applications of the method to comprehensive myocardial cell models for analysing insights into the mechanisms of action potential generation and calcium transient. The analysis results exhibit quantitative contributions of individual channel gating mechanisms and ion exchanger activities to membrane repolarization and of calcium fluxes and buffers to raising and descending of the cytosolic calcium level. These analyses quantitatively explicate principle of the model, which leads to a better understanding of cellular dynamics.

Application of the Kalman Filter for Faster Strong Coupling of Cardiovascular Simulations

In this paper, we propose a method for reducing the computational cost of strong coupling for multiscale cardiovascular simulation models. In such a model, individual model modules of myocardial cell, left ventricular structural dynamics, and circulatory hemodynamics are coupled. The strong coupling method enables stable and accurate calculation, but requires iterative calculations which are computationally expensive. The iterative calculations can be reduced, if accurate initial approximations are made available by predictors. The proposed method uses the Kalman filter to estimate accurate predictions by filtering out noise included in past values. The performance of the proposed method was assessed with an application to a previously published multiscale cardiovascular model. The proposed method reduced the number of iterations by 90% and 62% compared with no prediction and Lagrange extrapolation, respectively. Even when the parameters were varied and number of elements of the left ventricular finite-element model increased, the number of iterations required by the proposed method was significantly lower than that without prediction. These results indicate the robustness, scalability, and validity of the proposed method.

The switching role of β-adrenergic receptor signalling in cell survival or death decision of cardiomyocytes

How cell fate (survival or death) is determined and whether such determination depends on the strength of stimulation has remained unclear. In this study, we discover that the cell fate of cardiomyocytes switches from survival to death with the increase of β-adrenergic receptor (β-AR) stimulation. Mathematical simulations combined with biochemical experimentation of β-AR signalling pathways show that the gradual increment of isoproterenol (a non-selective β₁/β₂-AR agonist) induces the switching response of Bcl-2 expression from the initial increase followed by a decrease below its basal level. The ERK1/2 and ICER-mediated feed-forward loop is the hidden design principle underlying such cell fate switching characteristics. Moreover, we find that β1-blocker treatment increases the survival effect of β-AR stimuli through the regulation of Bcl-2 expression leading to the resistance to cell death, providing new insight into the mechanism of therapeutic effects. Our systems analysis further suggests a novel potential therapeutic strategy for heart disease.

The contribution of signal strength on cell fate decisions is often not reflected in signalling networks. By combining mathematical simulation and biochemical experiments in cultured adult cardiomyocytes, Shin et al. show that the concentration of a β-adrenergic receptor agonist affects the expression of Bcl-2, influencing the balance between cell survival and death.

Potential role of cardiac chloride channels and transporters as novel therapeutic targets

The heart and blood vessels express a range of anion currents (e.g. ICl.PKA) and symporter/antiporters (e.g. Cl(-)/HCO3(-) exchanger) that translocate chloride (Cl(-)). They have been proposed to contribute to a variety of physiological processes including cellular excitability, cell volume homeostasis and apoptosis. Additionally there is evidence that Cl(-) currents or transporters may play a role in cardiac pathophysiology. Arrhythmogenesis, the process of cardiac ischaemic preconditioning, and the adaptive remodelling process in myocardial hypertrophy and heart failure have all been linked to such channels or transporters. We have explored the possibility that selective targeting of one or more of these may provide benefit in cardiovascular disease. Existing evidence points to an emerging role of cardiac cell anion channels as potential therapeutic targets, the 'disease-specificity' of which may represent a substantial improvement on current targets. However, the limitations of current techniques hitherto applied (such as developmental compensation in gene-modified animals) and pharmacological agents (which do not at present possess sufficient selectivity for the adequate probing of function) have thus far hindered translation to the introduction of new therapy.

A compartmentalized mathematical model of the β1-adrenergic signaling system in mouse ventricular myocytes

The β₁-adrenergic signaling system plays an important role in the functioning of cardiac cells. Experimental data shows that the activation of this system produces inotropy, lusitropy, and chronotropy in the heart, such as increased magnitude and relaxation rates of [Ca²⁺]_i transients and contraction force, and increased heart rhythm. However, excessive stimulation of β₁-adrenergic receptors leads to heart dysfunction and heart failure. In this paper, a comprehensive, experimentally based mathematical model of the β₁-adrenergic signaling system for mouse ventricular myocytes is developed, which includes major subcellular functional compartments (caveolae, extracaveolae, and cytosol). The model describes biochemical reactions that occur during stimulation of β₁-adrenoceptors, changes in ionic currents, and modifications of Ca²⁺ handling system. Simulations describe the dynamics of major signaling molecules, such as cyclic AMP and protein kinase A, in different subcellular compartments; the effects of inhibition of phosphodiesterases on cAMP production; kinetics and magnitudes of phosphorylation of ion channels, transporters, and Ca²⁺ handling proteins; modifications of action potential shape and duration; magnitudes and relaxation rates of [Ca²⁺]_i transients; changes in intracellular and transmembrane Ca²⁺ fluxes; and [Na⁺]_i fluxes and dynamics. The model elucidates complex interactions of ionic currents upon activation of β₁-adrenoceptors at different stimulation frequencies, which ultimately lead to a relatively modest increase in action potential duration and significant increase in [Ca²⁺]_i transients. In particular, the model includes two subpopulations of the L-type Ca²⁺ channels, in caveolae and extracaveolae compartments, and their effects on the action potential and [Ca²⁺]_i transients are investigated. The presented model can be used by researchers for the interpretation of experimental data and for the developments of mathematical models for other species or for pathological conditions.

Nonlinear multiscale circulation model reproducable linear end-systolic pressure-volume relationship

As a well-known property of the heart, many studies has reported that the left ventricular end-systolic pressure-volume relationship (ESPVR) is linear. However, the reason of the linearity is poorly understood. This article presents a multiscale circulation model to be a tool for theoretical analyses on the mechanism of the linearity of ESPVR. The model is composed of three sub-models; a detailed closed-loop lumped-parameter model for cardiovascular system, geometric left ventricle model, a comprehensive ventricular myocyte model. Although the present model integrates nonlinear sub-models, the model can successfully reproduce highly linear ESPVR without any arbitrary modifications.

A study on the relationship between electrical transmural heterogeneity and ventricular energetics

In this study, we use cardiovascular simulation to gain new insights on the correlation between electrical heterogeneity and ventricular energetics. Although there are numerous in vivo and in vitro studies on the electrical heterogeneity within the ventricular myocardium, not much attention has been directed to its correlation to cardiovascular mechanics, because of difficulties in simultaneously observing and analyzing multiple spatial scales (the cell, the organ, and the system). We performed simulations with two cardiovascular simulation models, one which uses different myocardial cell models for the epicardial, endocardial, and mid-myocardial cells, and another which uses a homogeneous model throughout the entire myocardium. The epicardial, endocardial, and midmyocardial cell models were created by parametrically tuning a homogenous cell model. From the cardiovascular simulation we obtained pressure-volume loops which were used to calculate cardiovascular energetic efficiency and myocardial contractility. We found that energetic efficiency is higher in the electrically heterogeneous model.

Contribution of quantitative changes in individual ionic current systems to the embryonic development of ventricular myocytes: a simulation study

Early embryonic rodent ventricular cells exhibit spontaneous action potential (AP), which disappears in later developmental stages. Here, we used 3 mathematical models-the Kyoto, Ten Tusscher-Panfilov, and Luo-Rudy models-to present an overview of the functional landscape of developmental changes in embryonic ventricular cells. We switched the relative current densities of 9 ionic components in the Kyoto model, and 160 of 512 representative combinations were predicted to result in regular spontaneous APs, in which the quantitative changes in Na(+) current (I Na) and funny current (I f) made large contributions to a wide range of basic cycle lengths. In all three models, the increase in inward rectifier current (I K1) before the disappearance of I f was predicted to result in abnormally high intracellular Ca(2+) concentrations. Thus, we demonstrated that the developmental changes in APs were well represented, as I Na increased before the disappearance of I f, followed by a 10-fold increase in I K1.

Na/K pump regulation of cardiac repolarization: insights from a systems biology approach

The sodium-potassium pump is widely recognized as the principal mechanism for active ion transport across the cellular membrane of cardiac tissue, being responsible for the creation and maintenance of the transarcolemmal sodium and potassium gradients, crucial for cardiac cell electrophysiology. Importantly, sodium-potassium pump activity is impaired in a number of major diseased conditions, including ischemia and heart failure. However, its subtle ways of action on cardiac electrophysiology, both directly through its electrogenic nature and indirectly via the regulation of cell homeostasis, make it hard to predict the electrophysiological consequences of reduced sodium-potassium pump activity in cardiac repolarization. In this review, we discuss how recent studies adopting the systems biology approach, through the integration of experimental and modeling methodologies, have identified the sodium-potassium pump as one of the most important ionic mechanisms in regulating key properties of cardiac repolarization and its rate dependence, from subcellular to whole organ levels. These include the role of the pump in the biphasic modulation of cellular repolarization and refractoriness, the rate control of intracellular sodium and calcium dynamics and therefore of the adaptation of repolarization to changes in heart rate, as well as its importance in regulating pro-arrhythmic substrates through modulation of dispersion of repolarization and restitution. Theoretical findings are consistent across a variety of cell types and species including human, and widely in agreement with experimental findings. The novel insights and hypotheses on the role of the pump in cardiac electrophysiology obtained through this integrative approach could eventually lead to novel therapeutic and diagnostic strategies.

Nickel inhibits β-1 adrenoceptor mediated activation of cardiac CFTR chloride channels

Cardiac ventricular myocytes exhibit a protein kinase A-dependent Cl(-) current (ICl.PKA) mediated by the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). There is conflicting evidence regarding the ability of the divalent cation nickel (Ni(2+)), which has been used widely in vitro in the study of other cardiac ionic conductances, to inhibit ICl.PKA. Here the action of Ni(2+) on ICl.PKA activated by β-adrenergic stimulation has been elucidated. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were made from rabbit isolated ventricular myocytes. Externally applied Ni(2+) blocked ICl.PKA activated by 1 μM isoprenaline with a log IC50 (M) of -4.107 ± 0.075 (IC50=78.1 μM) at +100 mV and -4.322 ± 0.107 (IC50=47.6 μM) at -100 mV. Thus, the block of ICl.PKA by Ni(2+) was not strongly voltage dependent. Ni(2+) applied internally via the patch-pipette was ineffective at inhibiting isoprenaline-activated ICl,PKA, but in the same experiments the current was suppressed by external Ni(2+) application, indicative of an external site of Ni(2+) action. In the presence of 1 μM atenolol isoprenaline was ineffective at activating ICl.PKA, but in the presence of the β2-adrenoceptor inhibitor ICI 118,551 isoprenaline still activated Ni(2+)-sensitive ICl.PKA. Collectively, these data demonstrate that Ni(2+) ions produce marked inhibition of β1-adrenoceptor activated ventricular ICl.PKA at submillimolar [Ni(2+)]: an action that is likely to involve an interaction between Ni(2+) and β1-adrenoceptors. The concentration-dependence for ICl.PKA inhibition seen here indicates the potential for confounding effects on ICl,PKA to occur even at comparatively low Ni(2+) concentrations, when Ni(2+) is used to study other cardiac ionic currents under conditions of β-adrenergic agonism.

The force-frequency relationship: insights from mathematical modeling

The force-frequency relationship has intrigued researchers since its discovery by Bowditch in 1871. Many attempts have been made to construct mathematical descriptions of this phenomenon, beginning with the simple formulation of Koch-Wesser and Blinks in 1963 to the most sophisticated ones of today. This property of cardiac muscle is amplified by β-adrenergic stimulation, and, in a coordinated way, the neurohumoral state alters both frequency (acting on the sinoatrial node) as well as force generation (modifying ventricular myocytes). This synchronized tuning is needed to meet new metabolic demands. Cardiac modelers have already linked mechanical and electrical activity in their formulations and showed how those activities feedback on each other. However, now it is necessary to include neurological control to have a complete description of heart performance, especially when changes in frequency are involved. Study of arrhythmias (or antiarrhythmic drugs) based on mathematical models should incorporate this effect to make useful predictions or point out potential pharmaceutical targets.

A coupling method for a cardiovascular simulation model which includes the Kalman filter

Multi-scale models of the cardiovascular system provide new insight that was unavailable with in vivo and in vitro experiments. For the cardiovascular system, multi-scale simulations provide a valuable perspective in analyzing the interaction of three phenomenons occurring at different spatial scales: circulatory hemodynamics, ventricular structural dynamics, and myocardial excitation-contraction. In order to simulate these interactions, multiscale cardiovascular simulation systems couple models that simulate different phenomena. However, coupling methods require a significant amount of calculation, since a system of non-linear equations must be solved for each timestep. Therefore, we proposed a coupling method which decreases the amount of calculation by using the Kalman filter. In our method, the Kalman filter calculates approximations for the solution to the system of non-linear equations at each timestep. The approximations are then used as initial values for solving the system of non-linear equations. The proposed method decreases the number of iterations required by 94.0% compared to the conventional strong coupling method. When compared with a smoothing spline predictor, the proposed method required 49.4% fewer iterations.

Left ventricular and aortic dysfunction in cystic fibrosis mice

BACKGROUND

Left ventricular (LV) abnormalities have been reported in cystic fibrosis (CF); however, it remains unclear if loss of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) function causes heart defects independent of lung disease.

METHODS

Using gut-corrected F508del CFTR mutant mice (ΔF508), which do not develop human lung disease, we examined in vivo heart and aortic function via 2D transthoracic echocardiography and LV catheterization.

RESULTS

ΔF508 mouse hearts showed LV concentric remodeling along with enhanced inotropy (increased +dP/dt, fractional shortening, decreased isovolumetric contraction time) and greater lusitropy (-dP/dt, Tau). Aortas displayed increased stiffness and altered diastolic flow. β-adrenergic stimulation revealed diminished cardiac reserve (attenuated +dP/dt,-dP/dt, LV pressure).

CONCLUSIONS

In a mouse model of CF, CFTR mutation leads to LV remodeling with alteration of cardiac and aortic functions in the absence of lung disease. As CF patients live longer, more active lives, their risk for cardiovascular disease should be considered.

Vectorcardiography analysis of the repolarization response to pharmacologically induced autonomic nervous system modulation in healthy subjects

Autonomic nervous system activity is essential for regulation of ventricular repolarization (VR) and plays an important role in several arrhythmogenic conditions. This study in 31 healthy adult subjects (16 men, 15 women) evaluated the VR response to pharmacologically modulated autonomic nervous system activity applying vectorcardiography (VCG) analysis. During continuous VCG recording, 0.01-0.1 μg·kg(-1)·min(-1) isoprenaline (Iso) was infused at an increasing flow rate until three targeted heart rates (HR) were reached. After Iso washout, one intravenous bolus of 0.04 mg/kg atropine was given followed by an intravenous bolus of 0.2 mg/kg propranolol. A 5-min steady-state VCG recording was analyzed for each of the seven phases (including baseline 1 and 2). Furthermore, during the first 4 min following atropine, six periods of 10-s VCG were selected for subanalysis to evaluate the time course of change. The analysis included QRS, QT, and T-peak to T-end intervals, measures of the QRS and T vectors and their relation, as well as T-loop morphology parameters. By increasing HR, Iso infusion decreased HR dependent parameters reflecting total heterogeneity of VR (T area) and action potential morphology (ventricular gradient). In contrast, Iso prolonged QT HR corrected according to Bazett and increased the T-peak to T-end-to-QT ratio to levels observed in arrhythmogenic conditions. HR acceleration after atropine was accompanied by a transient paradoxical QT prolongation and delayed HR adaptation of T area and ventricular gradient. In addition to the expected HR adaptation, the VR response to β-adrenoceptor stimulation with Iso and to muscarinic receptor blockade with atropine thus included alterations previously observed in congenital and acquired long QT syndromes, demonstrating substantial overlap between physiological and pathophysiological electrophysiology.

MRP4 and CFTR in the regulation of cAMP and β-adrenergic contraction in cardiac myocytes

Spatiotemporal regulation of cAMP in cardiac myocytes is integral to regulating the diverse functions downstream of β-adrenergic stimulation. The activities of cAMP phosphodiesterases modulate critical and well-studied cellular processes. Recently, in epithelial and smooth muscle cells, it was found that the multi-drug resistant protein 4 (MRP4) acts as a cAMP efflux pump to regulate intracellular cAMP levels and alter effector function, including activation of the cAMP-stimulated Cl(-) channel, CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator). In the current study we investigated the potential role of MRP4 in regulating intracellular cAMP and β-adrenergic stimulated contraction rate in cardiac myocytes. Cultured neonatal ventricular myocytes were used for all experiments. In addition to wildtype mice, β(1)-, β(2)-, and β(1)/β(2)-adrenoceptor, and CFTR knockout mice were used. MRP4 expression was probed via Western blot, intracellular cAMP was measured by fluorescence resonance energy transfer, while the functional role of MRP4 was assayed via monitoring of isoproterenol-stimulated contraction rate. We found that MRP4 is expressed in mouse neonatal ventricular myocytes. A pharmacological inhibitor of MRP4, MK571, potentiated submaximal isoproterenol-stimulated cAMP accumulation and cardiomyocyte contraction rate via β(1)-adrenoceptors. CFTR expression was critical for submaximal isoproterenol-stimulated contraction rate. Interestingly, MRP4-dependent changes in contraction rate were CFTR-dependent, however, PDE4-dependent potentiation of contraction rate was CFTR-independent. We have shown, for the first time, a role for MRP4 in the regulation of cAMP in cardiac myocytes and involvement of CFTR in β-adrenergic stimulated contraction. Together with phosphodiesterases, MRP4 must be considered when examining cAMP regulation in cardiac myocytes.

Pivotal role of mitochondrial Na⁺₋Ca²⁺ exchange in antigen receptor mediated Ca²⁺ signalling in DT40 and A20 B lymphocytes

Cytoplasmic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) increases upon activation of antigen-receptor in lymphocytes. Mitochondria have been suggested to regulate the [Ca(2+)](i) response, but the molecular mechanisms and the roles are poorly understood. To clarify them, we carried out a combination study of mathematical simulations and knockout or knockdown of NCLX, a gene candidate for the mitochondrial Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchanger (NCX(mit)), in B lymphocytes. A mathematical model of Ca(2+) dynamics in B lymphocytes demonstrated that NCX(mit) inhibition reduces basal Ca(2+) content of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and suppresses B-cell antigen receptor (BCR)-mediated [Ca(2+)](i) rise. The predictions were validated in DT40 B lymphocytes of heterozygous NCLX knockout (NCLX(+/-)). In NCLX(+/-) cells, mitochondrial Ca(2+) efflux via NCX(mit) was strongly decelerated, suggesting NCLX is a gene responsible for NCX(mit) in B lymphocytes. Consistent with the predictions, ER Ca(2+) content declined and [Ca(2+)](i) hardly rose upon BCR activation in NCLX(+/-) cells. ER Ca(2+) uptake was reduced to ∼58% of the wild-type (WT), while it was comparable to WT when mitochondrial respiration was disturbed. Essentially the same results were obtained by a pharmacological inhibition or knockdown of NCLX by siRNA in A20 B lymphocytes. Unexpectedly, ER Ca(2+) leak was augmented and co-localization of mitochondria with ER was lower in NCLX(+/-) and NCLX silenced cells. Taken together, we concluded that NCLX is a key Ca(2+) provider to ER, and that NCLX-mediated Ca(2+) recycling between mitochondria and ER is pivotal in B cell responses to antigen.

Cardiac myocytes and local signaling in nano-domains

It is well known that calcium-induced calcium-release in cardiac myocytes takes place in spatially restricted regions known as dyads, where discrete patches of junctional sarcoplasmic reticulum tightly associate with the t-tubule membrane. The dimensions of a dyad are so small that it contains only a few Ca²⁺ ions at any given time. Ca²⁺ signaling in the dyad is therefore noisy, and dominated by the Brownian motion of Ca²⁺ ions in a potential field. Remarkably, from this complexity emerges the integrated behavior of the myocyte in which, under normal conditions, precise control of Ca²⁺ release and muscle contraction is maintained over the life of the cell. This is but one example of how signal processing within the cardiac myocyte and other cells often occurs in small "nano-domains" where proteins and protein complexes interact at spatial dimensions on the order of ∼1-10 nm and at time-scales on the order of nanoseconds to perform the functions of the cell. In this article, we will review several examples of local signaling in nano-domains, how it contributes to the integrative behavior of the cardiac myocyte, and present computational methods for modeling signal processing within these domains across differing spatio-temporal scales.

Cardiac ion channel current modulation by the CFTR inhibitor GlyH-101

The role in the heart of the cardiac isoform of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), which underlies a protein kinase A-dependent Cl(-) current (I(Cl.PKA)) in cardiomyocytes, remains unclear. The identification of a CFTR-selective inhibitor would provide an important tool for the investigation of the contribution of CFTR to cardiac electrophysiology. GlyH-101 is a glycine hydrazide that has recently been shown to block CFTR channels but its effects on cardiomyocytes are unknown. Here the action of GlyH-101 on cardiac I(Cl.PKA) and on other ion currents has been established. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were made from rabbit isolated ventricular myocytes. GlyH-101 blocked I(Cl.PKA) in a concentration- and voltage-dependent fashion (IC(50) at +100 mV=0.3 ± 1.5 μM and at -100 mV=5.1 ± 1.3 μM). Woodhull analysis suggested that GlyH-101 blocks the open pore of cardiac CFTR channels at an electrical distance of 0.15 ± 0.03 from the external membrane surface. A concentration of GlyH-101 maximally effective against I(Cl.PKA) (30 μM) was tested on other cardiac ion currents. Inward current at -120 mV, comprised predominantly of the inward-rectifier background K(+) current, I(K1), was reduced by ∼43% (n=5). Under selective recording conditions, the Na(+) current (I(Na)) was markedly inhibited by GlyH-101 over the entire voltage range (with a fractional block at -40 mV of ∼82%; n=8). GlyH-101 also produced a voltage-dependent inhibition of L-type Ca(2+) channel current (I(Ca,L)); fractional block at +10 mV of ∼49% and of ∼28% at -10 mV; n=11, with a ∼-3 mV shift in the voltage-dependence of I(Ca,L) activation. Thus, this study demonstrates for the first time that GlyH-101 blocks cardiac I(Cl.PKA) channels in a similar fashion to that reported for recombinant CFTR. However, inhibition of other cardiac conductances may limit its use as a CFTR-selective blocker in the heart.

Local control of β-adrenergic stimulation: Effects on ventricular myocyte electrophysiology and Ca(2+)-transient

Local signaling domains and numerous interacting molecular pathways and substrates contribute to the whole-cell response of myocytes during β-adrenergic stimulation (βARS). We aimed to elucidate the quantitative contribution of substrates and their local signaling environments during βARS to the canine epicardial ventricular myocyte electrophysiology and calcium transient (CaT). We present a computational compartmental model of βARS and its electrophysiological effects. Novel aspects of the model include localized signaling domains, incorporation of β1 and β2 receptor isoforms, a detailed population-based approach to integrate the βAR and Ca(2+)/Calmodulin kinase (CaMKII) signaling pathways and their effects on a wide range of substrates that affect whole-cell electrophysiology and CaT. The model identifies major roles for phosphodiesterases, adenylyl cyclases, PKA and restricted diffusion in the control of local cAMP levels and shows that activation of specific cAMP domains by different receptor isoforms allows for specific control of action potential and CaT properties. In addition, the model predicts increased CaMKII activity during βARS due to rate-dependent accumulation and increased Ca(2+) cycling. CaMKII inhibition, reduced compartmentation, and selective blockade of β1AR is predicted to reduce the occurrence of delayed afterdepolarizations during βARS. Finally, the relative contribution of each PKA substrate to whole-cell electrophysiology is quantified by comparing simulations with and without phosphorylation of each target. In conclusion, this model enhances our understanding of localized βAR signaling and its whole-cell effects in ventricular myocytes by incorporating receptor isoforms, multiple pathways and a detailed representation of multiple-target phosphorylation; it provides a basis for further studies of βARS under pathological conditions.

Computational models reduce complexity and accelerate insight into cardiac signaling networks

Cardiac signaling networks exhibit considerable complexity in size and connectivity. The intrinsic complexity of these networks complicates the interpretation of experimental findings. This motivates new methods for investigating the mechanisms regulating cardiac signaling networks and the consequences these networks have on cardiac physiology and disease. Next-generation experimental techniques are also generating a wealth of genomic and proteomic data that can be difficult to analyze or interpret. Computational models are poised to play a key role in addressing these challenges. Computational models have a long history in contributing to the understanding of cardiac physiology and are useful for identifying biological mechanisms, inferring multiscale consequences to cell signaling activities and reducing the complexity of large data sets. Models also integrate well with experimental studies to explain experimental observations and generate new hypotheses. Here, we review the contributions computational modeling approaches have made to the analysis of cardiac signaling networks and forecast opportunities for computational models to accelerate cardiac signaling research.

A study on prediction methods for a cardiovascular strong-coupling simulation

We investigated numerical methods for predictors in a multiscale cardiovascular simulation model. The proposed method predicts initial approximations for the iterative convergence calculations of the strong coupling method using the smoothing spline to remove errors from values of past timesteps and using the linear and second-order extrapolation. The new coupling algorithm was used for coupling a left ventricular finite element model to a myocardial excitation-contraction model. We performed experiments with different values for the smoothing parameter λ and with linear and second-order extrapolations. λ = 1 with the linear extrapolation gave the best results. It reduced computation time by 91% compared to the strong coupling method. With the use of the smoothing spline, distance between the initial approximation and converged solution reduced by 62%, while the average number of iterations reduced by 32%. The smoothing spline can be used to improve the accuracy of predictors and reduce the number of iterations needed for the computation of the convergence procedure.

Magnesium gating of cardiac gap junction channels

We aimed to study kinetics of modulation by intracellular Mg(2+) of cardiac gap junction (Mg(2+) gate). Paired myocytes of guinea-pig ventricle were superfused with solutions containing various concentrations of Mg(2+). In order to rapidly apply Mg(2+) to one aspect of the gap junction, the non-junctional membrane of one of the pair was perforated at nearly the connecting site by pulses of nitrogen laser beam. The gap junction conductance (G(j)) was measured by clamping the membrane potential of the other cell using two-electrode voltage clamp method. The laser perforation immediately increased G(j), followed by slow G(j) change with time constant of 3.5 s at 10 mM Mg(2+). Mg(2+) more than 1.0 mM attenuated dose-dependently the gap junction conductance and lower Mg(2+) (0.6 mM) increased G(j) with a Hill coefficient of 3.4 and a half-maximum effective concentration of 0.6 mM. The time course of G(j) changes was fitted by single exponential function, and the relationship between the reciprocal of time constant and Mg(2+) concentration was almost linear. Based on the experimental data, a mathematical model of Mg(2+) gate with one open state and three closed states well reproduced experimental results. One-dimensional cable model of thirty ventricular myocytes connected to the Mg(2+) gate model suggested a pivotal role of the Mg(2+) gate of gap junction under pathological conditions.

Cardiomyocytes with disrupted CFTR function require CaMKII and Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channel activity to maintain contraction rate

The physiological role of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) in cardiomyocytes remains unclear. Using spontaneously beating neonatal ventricular cardiomyocytes from wild-type (WT) or CFTR knockout (KO) mice, we examined the role of CFTR in the modulation of cardiomyocyte contraction rate. Contraction rates of spontaneously beating myocytes were captured by video imaging. Real-time changes in intracellular ([Ca(2+)](i)) and protein kinase A (PKA) activity were measured by fura-2 and fluorescence resonance energy transfer, respectively. Acute inhibition of CFTR in WT cardiomyocytes using the CFTR inhibitor CFTR(inh)-172 transiently inhibited the contraction rate. By contrast, cardiomyocytes from CFTR KO mice displayed normal contraction rates. Further investigation revealed that acute inhibition of CFTR activity in WT cardiomyocytes activated L-type Ca(2+) channels, leading to a transient increase of [Ca(2+)](i) and inhibition of PKA activity. Additionally, we found that contraction rate normalization following acute CFTR inhibition in WT cardiomyocytes or chronic deletion in cardiomyocytes from CFTR KO mice requires the activation of Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) and Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channels (CaCC) because simultaneous addition of myristoylated-autocamtide-2-related inhibitory peptide or niflumic acid and CFTR(inh)-172 to WT cardiomyocytes or treatment of cardiomyoctes from CFTR KO mice with these agents caused sustained attenuation of contraction rates. Our results demonstrate that regulation of cardiomyocyte contraction involves CFTR. They also reveal that activation of CaMKII and CaCC compensates for loss of CFTR function. Increased dependence on CaMKII upon loss of CFTR function might leave cystic fibrosis patients at increased risk of heart dysfunction and disease.

Evaluation of cardiac oxygen consumption under hypoxia with tissue model integrating microcirculation model and cell model

Analyzing the microscopic energy balance of cardiac tissue is very important for understanding heart diseases. However, such analysis is difficult with animal experiments. Therefore, the accurate simulation model is expected to be an important tool for such research. We propose a cardiac tissue model which can reproduce accurate distribution of oxygen consumption under hypoxia. The model includes blood tissue exchange model of capillary and oxygen consumption model of cells. The capillary model is based on the model proposed by Dash et al. 2006, and the cell model is based on the model proposed by Kuzumoto et al. 2007. By analyzing the oxygen consumption of the proposed model, the relation between the oxygen consumption and the arterial oxygen concentration was found to be largely different from that of single cell model. This implies that the animal experimental data should be carefully used for constructing a biological simulation model, depending on whether the experiment is performed within a cell or a tissue.