Tau as a therapeutic target in neurodegenerative disease

Nanotechnology for tau pathology in Alzheimer's disease

Tau protein aggregation is a defining characteristic of Alzheimer's disease (AD), leading to the formation of neurofibrillary tangles that disrupt neural communication and ultimately result in cognitive decline. Nanotechnology presents novel strategies for both diagnosing and treating Alzheimer's disease. Nanotechnology. It has become a revolutionary tool in the fight against Alzheimer's disease, particularly in addressing the pathological accumulation of tau protein. This review explores the relationship between tau-related neurophysiology and the utilization of nanotechnology for AD treatment, focusing on the application of nanomaterials to regulate tau phosphorylation, hinder tau aggregation and propagation, stabilize microtubules, eliminate pathological tau and emphasize the potential of nanotechnology in developing personalized therapies and monitoring treatment responses in AD patients. This review combines tau-related neurophysiology with nanotechnology to provide new insights for further understanding and treating Alzheimer's disease.

Liquid-liquid phase separation in Alzheimer's disease

The pathological aggregation and misfolding of tau and amyloid-β play a key role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the underlying pathological mechanisms remain unclear. Emerging evidences indicate that liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) has great impacts on regulating human health and diseases, especially neurodegenerative diseases. A series of studies have revealed the significance of LLPS in AD. In this review, we summarize the latest progress of LLPS in AD, focusing on the impact of metal ions, small-molecule inhibitors, and proteinaceous partners on tau LLPS and aggregation, as well as toxic oligomerization, the role of LLPS on amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregation, and the cross-interactions between amyloidogenic proteins in AD. Eventually, the fundamental methods and techniques used in LLPS study are introduced. We expect to present readers a deeper understanding of the relationship between LLPS and AD.

The Role of Inositol Hexakisphosphate Kinase in the Central Nervous System

Inositol is a unique biological small molecule that can be phosphorylated or even further pyrophosphorylated on each of its six hydroxyl groups. These numerous phosphorylation states of inositol along with the kinases and phosphatases that interconvert them comprise the inositol phosphate signaling pathway. Inositol hexakisphosphate kinases, or IP6Ks, convert the fully mono-phosphorylated inositol to the pyrophosphate 5-IP7 (also denoted IP7). There are three isoforms of IP6K: IP6K1, 2, and 3. Decades of work have established a central role for IP6Ks in cell signaling. Genetic and pharmacologic manipulation of IP6Ks in vivo and in vitro has shown their importance in metabolic disease, chronic kidney disease, insulin signaling, phosphate homeostasis, and numerous other cellular and physiologic processes. In addition to these peripheral processes, a growing body of literature has shown the role of IP6Ks in the central nervous system (CNS). IP6Ks have a key role in synaptic vesicle regulation, Akt/GSK3 signaling, neuronal migration, cell death, autophagy, nuclear translocation, and phosphate homeostasis. IP6Ks' regulation of these cellular processes has functional implications in vivo in behavior and CNS anatomy.

Levosimendan inhibits disulfide tau oligomerization and ameliorates tau pathology in TauP301L-BiFC mice

Tau oligomers play critical roles in tau pathology and are responsible for neuronal cell death and transmitting the disease in the brain. Accordingly, preventing tau oligomerization has become an important therapeutic strategy to treat tauopathies, including Alzheimer's disease. However, progress has been slow because detecting tau oligomers in the cellular context is difficult. Working toward tau-targeted drug discovery, our group has developed a tau-BiFC platform to monitor and quantify tau oligomerization. By using the tau-BiFC platform, we screened libraries with FDA-approved and passed phase I drugs and identified levosimendan as a potent anti-tau agent that inhibits tau oligomerization. ¹⁴C-isotope labeling of levosimendan revealed that levosimendan covalently bound to tau cysteines, directly inhibiting disulfide-linked tau oligomerization. In addition, levosimendan disassembles tau oligomers into monomers, rescuing neurons from aggregation states. In comparison, the well-known anti-tau agents methylene blue and LMTM failed to protect neurons from tau-mediated toxicity, generating high-molecular-weight tau oligomers. Levosimendan displayed robust potency against tau oligomerization and rescued cognitive declines induced by tauopathy in the Tau^P301L-BiFC mouse model. Our data present the potential of levosimendan as a disease-modifying drug for tauopathies.

Aggregation of Disordered Proteins Associated with Neurodegeneration

Cellular deposition of protein aggregates, one of the hallmarks of neurodegeneration, disrupts cellular functions and leads to neuronal death. Mutations, posttranslational modifications, and truncations are common molecular underpinnings in the formation of aberrant protein conformations that seed aggregation. The major proteins involved in neurodegeneration include amyloid beta (Aβ) and tau in Alzheimer's disease, α-synuclein in Parkinson's disease, and TAR DNA-binding protein (TDP-43) in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). These proteins are described as intrinsically disordered and possess enhanced ability to partition into biomolecular condensates. In this review, we discuss the role of protein misfolding and aggregation in neurodegenerative diseases, specifically highlighting implications of changes to the primary/secondary (mutations, posttranslational modifications, and truncations) and the quaternary/supramolecular (oligomerization and condensation) structural landscapes for the four aforementioned proteins. Understanding these aggregation mechanisms provides insights into neurodegenerative diseases and their common underlying molecular pathology.

Manipulation of the diet-microbiota-brain axis in Alzheimer's disease

Several studies investigating the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease have identified various interdependent constituents contributing to the exacerbation of the disease, including Aβ plaque formation, tau protein hyperphosphorylation, neurofibrillary tangle accumulation, glial inflammation, and the eventual loss of proper neural plasticity. Recently, using various models and human patients, another key factor has been established as an influential determinant in brain homeostasis: the gut-brain axis. The implications of a rapidly aging population and the absence of a definitive cure for Alzheimer's disease have prompted a search for non-pharmaceutical tools, of which gut-modulatory therapies targeting the gut-brain axis have shown promise. Yet multiple recent studies examining changes in human gut flora in response to various probiotics and environmental factors are limited and difficult to generalize; whether the state of the gut microbiota in Alzheimer's disease is a cause of the disease, a result of the disease, or both through numerous feedback loops in the gut-brain axis, remains unclear. However, preliminary findings of longitudinal studies conducted over the past decades have highlighted dietary interventions, especially Mediterranean diets, as preventative measures for Alzheimer's disease by reversing neuroinflammation, modifying the intestinal and blood-brain barrier (BBB), and addressing gut dysbiosis. Conversely, the consumption of Western diets intensifies the progression of Alzheimer's disease through genetic alterations, impaired barrier function, and chronic inflammation. This review aims to support the growing body of experimental and clinical data highlighting specific probiotic strains and particular dietary components in preventing Alzheimer's disease via the gut-brain axis.

Recent advances of small molecule JNK3 inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease

C-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) is a member of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) family, with three isoforms, JNK1, JNK2 and JNK3. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurological disorder and the most common type of dementia. Two well-established AD pathologies are the deposition of Aβ amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles caused by Tau hyperphosphorylation. JNK3 is involved in forming amyloid Aβ and neurofibrillary tangles, suggesting that JNK3 may represent a target to develop treatments for AD. Therefore, this review will discuss the roles of JNK3 in the pathogenesis and treatment of AD, and the latest progress in the development of JNK3 inhibitors.

Tau Toxicity in Neurodegeneration

Tau is a microtubule-associated protein widely distributed in the central nervous system (CNS). The main function of tau is to promote the assembly of microtubules and stabilize their structure. After a long period of research on neurodegenerative diseases, the function and dysfunction of the microtubule-associated protein tau in neurodegenerative diseases and tau neurotoxicity have attracted increasing attention. Tauopathies are a series of progressive neurodegenerative diseases caused by pathological changes in tau, such as abnormal phosphorylation. The pathological features of tauopathies are the deposition of abnormally phosphorylated tau proteins and the aggregation of tau proteins in neurons. This article first describes the normal physiological function and dysfunction of tau proteins and then discusses the enzymes and proteins involved in tau phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, the role of tau in cell dysfunction, and the relationships between tau and several neurodegenerative diseases. The study of tau neurotoxicity provides new directions for the treatment of tauopathies.

Impacts of DNA methylation on Tau protein related genes in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease

As the most common cause of dementia, Alzheimer's disease (AD) is progressively neurodegenerative disease. In the initial stage, Alzheimer's disease is related to the memory disorder, followed by a serious progressive decline in cognitive function, and finally died. Neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) deposited in neurons form one of the histopathological features of AD. NFTs are composed of abnormally modified forms, such as hyperphosphorylation, of tau protein. DNA methylation on Tau protein related genes in the brains of AD patients plays an important role in AD pathogenesis. In this paper, the process and role of gene methylation in abnormal Tau modification and aggregation in the development of Alzheimer's disease were discussed. The effect of DNA methylation on tau protein in the brain of patients with Alzheimer's disease will help to find new targets in the development of drugs for treating Alzheimer's disease.

α-Synuclein Induces the GSK-3-Mediated Phosphorylation and Degradation of NURR1 and Loss of Dopaminergic Hallmarks

In Parkinson’s disease, the dysfunction of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal tract involves the loss of function of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta followed by death of these neurons. The functional recovery of these neurons requires a deep knowledge of the molecules that maintain the dopaminergic phenotype during adulthood and the mechanisms that subvert their activity. Previous studies have shown that transcription factor NURR1, involved in differentiation and maintenance of the dopaminergic phenotype, is downregulated by α-synuclein (α-SYN). In this study, we provide a mechanistic explanation to this finding by connecting α-SYN-induced activation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) with NURR1 phosphorylation followed by proteasomal degradation. The use of sequential deletion mutants and single point mutants of NURR1 allowed the identification of a domain comprising amino acids 123-PSSPPTPSTPS-134 that is targeted by GSK-3 and leads to subsequent ubiquitination and proteasome degradation. This study provides a detailed analysis of the regulation of NURR1 stability by phosphorylation in synucleinopathies such as Parkinson’s disease.

A Tau-Driven Adverse Outcome Pathway Blueprint Toward Memory Loss in Sporadic (Late-Onset) Alzheimer's Disease with Plausible Molecular Initiating Event Plug-Ins for Environmental Neurotoxicants

The worldwide prevalence of sporadic (late-onset) Alzheimer's disease (sAD) is dramatically increasing. Aging and genetics are important risk factors, but systemic and environmental factors contribute to this risk in a still poorly understood way. Within the frame of BioMed21, the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) concept for toxicology was recommended as a tool for enhancing human disease research and accelerating translation of data into human applications. Its potential to capture biological knowledge and to increase mechanistic understanding about human diseases has been substantiated since. In pursuit of the tau-cascade hypothesis, a tau-driven AOP blueprint toward the adverse outcome of memory loss is proposed. Sequences of key events and plausible key event relationships, triggered by the bidirectional relationship between brain cholesterol and glucose dysmetabolism, and contributing to memory loss are captured. To portray how environmental factors may contribute to sAD progression, information on chemicals and drugs, that experimentally or epidemiologically associate with the risk of AD and mechanistically link to sAD progression, are mapped on this AOP. The evidence suggests that chemicals may accelerate disease progression by plugging into sAD relevant processes. The proposed AOP is a simplified framework of key events and plausible key event relationships representing one specific aspect of sAD pathology, and an attempt to portray chemical interference. Other sAD-related AOPs (e.g., Aβ-driven AOP) and a better understanding of the impact of aging and genetic polymorphism are needed to further expand our mechanistic understanding of early AD pathology and the potential impact of environmental and systemic risk factors.

Recent advances in cellular biosensor technology to investigate tau oligomerization

Tau is a microtubule binding protein which plays an important role in physiological functions but it is also involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and related tauopathies. While insoluble and β-sheet containing tau neurofibrillary tangles have been the histopathological hallmark of these diseases, recent studies suggest that soluble tau oligomers, which are formed prior to fibrils, are the primary toxic species. Substantial efforts have been made to generate tau oligomers using purified recombinant protein strategies to study oligomer conformations as well as their toxicity. However, no specific toxic tau species has been identified to date, potentially due to the lack of cellular environment. Hence, there is a need for cell-based models for direct monitoring of tau oligomerization and aggregation. This review will summarize the recent advances in the cellular biosensor technology, with a focus on fluorescence resonance energy transfer, bimolecular fluorescence complementation, and split luciferase complementation approaches, to monitor formation of tau oligomers and aggregates in living cells. We will discuss the applications of the cellular biosensors in examining the heterogeneous tau conformational ensembles and factors affecting tau self-assembly, as well as detecting cell-to-cell propagation of tau pathology. We will also compare the advantages and limitations of each type of tau biosensors, and highlight their translational applications in biomarker development and therapeutic discovery.

The Structure Biology of Tau and Clue for Aggregation Inhibitor Design

Tau is a microtubule-associated protein that is mainly expressed in central and peripheral nerve systems. Tau binds to tubulin and regulates assembly and stabilization of microtubule, thus playing a critical role in neuron morphology, axon development and navigation. Tau is highly stable under normal conditions; however, there are several factors that can induce or promote aggregation of tau, forming neurofibrillary tangles. Neurofibrillary tangles are toxic to neurons, which may be related to a series of neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease. Thus, tau is widely accepted as an important therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases. While the monomeric structure of tau is highly disordered, the aggregate structure of tau is formed by closed packing of β-stands. Studies on the structure of tau and the structural transition mechanism provide valuable information on the occurrence, development, and therapy of tauopathies. In this review, we summarize recent progress on the structural investigation of tau and based on which we discuss aggregation inhibitor design.

Interplay of isoform 1N4R tau protein and amyloid-β peptide fragment 25-35 in reducing and non-reducing conditions

Amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide and tau protein are two hallmark proteins in Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, the parameters, which mediate the abnormal aggregation of Aβ and tau, have not been fully discovered. Here, we have provided an optimum method to purify tau protein isoform 1N4R by using nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid agarose chromatography under denaturing condition. The biochemical and biophysical properties of the purified protein were further characterized using in vitro tau filament assembly, tubulin polymerization assay, circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy. Afterwards, we investigated the effect of tau protein on aggregation of Aβ (25-35) peptide using microscopic imaging and cell viability assay. Incubation of tau at physiologic and supra-physiologic concentrations with Aβ25-35 for 40 days under reducing and non-reducing conditions revealed formation of two types of aggregates with distinct morphologies and dimensions. In non-reducing condition, the co-incubated sample showed granular aggregates, while in reducing condition, they formed annular protofibrils. Results from cell viability assay revealed the increased cell viability for the co-incubated sample. Therefore, the disassembling action shown by tau protein on Aβ25-35 suggests the possibility that tau may have a protective role in preventing Aβ peptide from acquiring the cytotoxic, aggregated form against oxidative stress damages.

When Good Kinases Go Rogue: GSK3, p38 MAPK and CDKs as Therapeutic Targets for Alzheimer's and Huntington's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a mostly sporadic brain disorder characterized by cognitive decline resulting from selective neurodegeneration in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex whereas Huntington's disease (HD) is a monogenic inherited disorder characterized by motor abnormalities and psychiatric disturbances resulting from selective neurodegeneration in the striatum. Although there have been numerous clinical trials for these diseases, they have been unsuccessful. Research conducted over the past three decades by a large number of laboratories has demonstrated that abnormal actions of common kinases play a key role in the pathogenesis of both AD and HD as well as several other neurodegenerative diseases. Prominent among these kinases are glycogen synthase kinase (GSK3), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and some of the cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). After a brief summary of the molecular and cell biology of AD and HD this review covers what is known about the role of these three groups of kinases in the brain and in the pathogenesis of the two neurodegenerative disorders. The potential of targeting GSK3, p38 MAPK and CDKS as effective therapeutics is also discussed as is a brief discussion on the utilization of recently developed drugs that simultaneously target two or all three of these groups of kinases. Multi-kinase inhibitors either by themselves or in combination with strategies currently being used such as immunotherapy or secretase inhibitors for AD and knockdown for HD could represent a more effective therapeutic approach for these fatal neurodegenerative diseases.

Inhibitors of Cholinesterases in Pharmacology: the Current Trends

Inhibitors of cholinesterases are a wide group of low molecular weight compounds with a significant role in the current pharmacology. Besides the pharmacological importance, they are also known as toxic compounds like military nerve agents. In the pharmacology, drugs for Alzheimer disease, myasthenia gravis and prophylaxis of poisoning by nerve agents can be mentioned as the relevant applications. Besides this, anti-inflammation and antiphrastic drugs are other pharmacological applications of these inhibitors. This review is focused on a survey of cholinesterase inhibitors with known or expected pharmacological impact and indications of their use. Recent literature with comments is provided here as well.

Is PROTAC technology really a game changer for central nervous system drug discovery?

Introduction: Central nervous system (CNS) diseases affect a large portion of the population, however, few therapeutic options are available. Furthermore, to date, clinical trials have been largely unsuccessful due to difficulty in targeting the undruggable, toxic proteins that underly many CNS disorders. PROteolysis Targeting Chimeras (PROTACs) are a rapidly emerging technology that has been proposed as a potential treatment option for various CNS diseases by hijacking the endogenous protein degradation process.Areas Covered: Herein, the authors discuss how the application of PROTACs may be beneficial in the treatment of major CNS diseases. They further discuss the main advantages and disadvantages of using PROTACs in the CNS, focusing on potential limitations such as their transient nature, localization, blood-brain barrier permeability and proteasome dysfunction.Expert opinion: It is evident that PROTACs have significant potential as a therapeutic tool for the treatment of CNS diseases and there is preliminary evidence suggesting that PROTACs could be successful in a clinical setting. Nevertheless, numerous limitations exist that must be overcome before this technology can be applied as a successful therapeutic for CNS disorders. Importantly, more in vivo studies are needed to determine the feasibility and effectiveness of using PROTACs in the brain.

Inhibiting PI3K leads to glucose metabolism disturbance in default mode network

BACKGROUND

As the symbolic pathological changes of Alzheimer's disease (AD), hyperphosphorylated tau and amyloid plaque play important roles in the progression of the disease. In AD patients, the neural activity in default mode network is abnormal at different stages of the disease, and showed a hypoconnective status. Inhibition of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) activates glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK-3β) and induces tau phosphorylation.

OBJECTIVE

We speculated that inhibiting cerebral PI3K altered the glucose metabolism in DMN. We aimed to explore the impacts of PI3K inhibition on tau phosphorylation, cerebral glucose metabolism, and synaptic plasticity.

METHODS

We injected wortmannin, an inhibitor of PI3K, lateral ventricularly in rats to mimic the pathology of AD. Immunohistochemistry was carried out to analyze the expression of phosphorylated tau. Region-specific glucose metabolism in the brain was analyzed using ¹⁸F-FDG PET imaging. In vivo long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus was detected to assess the synaptic plasticity.

RESULTS

The results show that the phosphorylated tau at T231 increased and the hippocampal LTP was suppressed 24 h after wortmannin administration. In the DMN, glucose uptake was significantly high, indicating a neural activity disturbance.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that targeting PI3K-GSK-3β pathway to mimic AD tau pathology interrupted the glucose metabolism of DMN brain regions.

From Hybrids to New Scaffolds: The Latest Medicinal Chemistry Goals in Multi-target Directed Ligands for Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic, progressive, and fatal neurodegenerative disorder affecting cognition, behavior, and function, being one of the most common causes of mental deterioration in elderly people. Once thought as being just developed because of β amyloid depositions or neurofibrillary Tau tangles, during the last decades, numerous AD-related targets have been established, the multifactorial nature of AD became evident. In this context, the one drug-one target paradigm has resulted in being inefficient in facing AD and other disorders with complex etiology, opening the field for the emergence of the multitarget approach. In this review, we highlight the recent advances within this area, emphasizing in hybridization tools of well-known chemical scaffolds endowed with pharmacological properties concerning AD, such as curcumin-, resveratrol-, chromone- and indole-. We focus mainly on well established and incipient AD therapeutic targets, AChE, BuChE, MAOs, β-amyloid deposition, 5-HT4 and Serotonin transporter, with the aim to shed light about new insights in the AD multitarget therapy.

Use of Biodegradable, Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects more than 24 million people worldwide and represents an immense medical, social and economic burden. While a vast array of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) is available for the prevention and possibly treatment of AD, applicability is limited by the selective nature of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) as well as by their severe peripheral side effects. A promising solution to these problems is the incorporation of anti-Alzheimer drugs in polymeric nanoparticles (NPs). However, while several polymeric NPs are nontoxic and biocompatible, many of them are not biodegradable and thus not appropriate for CNS-targeting. Among polymeric nanocarriers, chitosan-based NPs emerge as biodegradable yet stable vehicles for the delivery of CNS medications. Furthermore, due to their mucoadhesive character and intrinsic bioactivity, chitosan NPs can not only promote brain penetration of drugs via the olfactory route, but also act as anti-Alzheimer therapeutics themselves. Here we review how chitosan-based NPs could be used to address current challenges in the treatment of AD; with a specific focus on the enhancement of blood-brain barrier penetration of anti-Alzheimer drugs and on the reduction of their peripheral side effects.

Therapeutic Trem2 activation ameliorates amyloid-beta deposition and improves cognition in the 5XFAD model of amyloid deposition

BACKGROUND

Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cell-2 (TREM2) is a lipid and lipoprotein binding receptor expressed by cells of myeloid origin. Homozygous TREM2 mutations cause early onset progressive presenile dementia while heterozygous, point mutations triple the risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although human genetic findings support the notion that loss of TREM2 function exacerbates neurodegeneration, it is not clear whether activation of TREM2 in a disease state would result in therapeutic benefits. To determine the viability of TREM2 activation as a therapeutic strategy, we sought to characterize an agonistic Trem2 antibody (AL002a) and test its efficacy and mechanism of action in an aggressive mouse model of amyloid deposition.

METHODS

To determine whether agonism of Trem2 results in therapeutic benefits, we designed both intracranial and systemic administration studies. 5XFAD mice in the intracranial administration study were assigned to one of two injection groups: AL002a, a Trem2-agonizing antibody, or MOPC, an isotype-matched control antibody. Mice were then subject to a single bilateral intracranial injection into the frontal cortex and hippocampus and euthanized 72 h later. The tissue from the left hemisphere was histologically examined for amyloid-beta and microglia activation, whereas the tissue from the right hemisphere was used for biochemical analyses. Similarly, mice in the systemic administration study were randomized to one of the aforementioned injection groups and the assigned antibody was administered intraperitoneally once a week for 14 weeks. Mice underwent behavioral assessment between the 12- and 14-week timepoints and were euthanized 24 h after their final injection. The tissue from the left hemisphere was used for histological analyses whereas the tissue from the right hemisphere was used for biochemical analyses.

RESULTS

Here, we show that chronic activation of Trem2, in the 5XFAD mouse model of amyloid deposition, leads to reversal of the amyloid-associated gene expression signature, recruitment of microglia to plaques, decreased amyloid deposition, and improvement in spatial learning and novel object recognition memory.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that Trem2 activators may be effective for the treatment of AD and possibly other neurodegenerative disorders.

Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory and Neuroprotective Profiles of Novel 1,4-Dihydropyridine Derivatives for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer’s disease is a chronic and irreversible pathological process that has become the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease. Currently, it is considered a multifactorial disease where oxidative stress and chronic neuroinflammation play a crucial role in its onset and development. Its characteristic neuronal loss has been related to the formation of neurofibrillary tangles mainly composed by hyperphosphorylated tau protein. Hyperphosphorylation of tau protein is related to the over-activity of GSK-3β, a kinase that participates in several pathological mechanisms including neuroinflammation. Neuronal loss is also related to cytosolic Ca²⁺ homeostasis dysregulation that triggers apoptosis and free radicals production, contributing to oxidative damage and, finally, neuronal death. Under these premises, we have obtained a new family of 4,7-dihydro-2H-pyrazolo[3–b]pyridines as multitarget directed ligands showing potent antioxidant properties and able to scavenge both oxygen and nitrogen radical species, and also, with anti-inflammatory properties. Further characterization has demonstrated their capacity to inhibit GSK-3β and to block L-type voltage dependent calcium channels. Novel derivatives have also demonstrated an interesting neuroprotective profile on in vitro models of neurodegeneration. Finally, compound 4g revokes cellular death induced by tau hyperphosphorylation in hippocampal slices by blocking reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. In conclusion, the multitarget profile exhibited by these compounds is a novel therapeutic strategy of potential interest in the search of novel treatments for Alzheimer’s disease.

Understanding the disrupting mechanism of the Tau aggregation motif "306 VQIVYK311 " by phenylthiazolyl-hydrazides inhibitors

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the abnormal processing of the Tau and the amyloid precursor proteins. The unusual aggregation of Tau is based on the formation of intermolecular β-sheets through two motifs: ²⁷⁵ VQIINK²⁸⁰ and ³⁰⁶ VQIVYK³¹¹ . Phenylthiazolyl-hydrazides (PTHs) are capable of inhibiting/disassembling Tau aggregates. However, the disaggregation mechanism of Tau oligomers by PTHs is still unknown. In this work, we studied the disruption of the oligomeric form of the Tau motif ³⁰⁶ VQIVYK³¹¹ by PTHs through molecular docking, molecular dynamics, and free energy calculations. We predicted hydrophobic interactions as the major driving forces for the stabilization of Tau oligomer, with V306 and I308 being the major contributors. Nonpolar component of the binding free energy is essential to stabilize Tau-PTH complexes. PTHs disrupted mainly the van der Waals interactions between the monomers, leading to oligomer destabilization. Destabilization of full Tau filament by PTHs and emodin was not observed in the sampled 20 ns; however, in all cases, the nonpolar component of the binding free energy is essential for the formation of Tau filament-PTH and Tau filament-emodin. These results provide useful clues for the design of more effective Tau-aggregation inhibitors.

Toxic tau: structural origins of tau aggregation in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by the extracellular accumulation of the amyloid β in the form of amyloid plaques and the intracellular deposition of the microtubule-associated protein tau in the form of neurofibrillary tangles. Most of the Alzheimer’s drugs targeting amyloid β have been failed in clinical trials. Particularly, tau pathology connects greatly in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. Tau protein enhances the stabilization of microtubules that leads to the appropriate function of the neuron. Changes in the quantity or the conformation of tau protein could affect its function as a microtubules stabilizer and some of the processes wherein it is involved. The molecular mechanisms leading to the accumulation of tau are principally signified by numerous posttranslational modifications that change its conformation and structural state. Therefore, aberrant phosphorylation, as well as truncation of tau protein, has come into focus as significant mechanisms that make tau protein in a pathological entity. Furthermore, the shape-shifting nature of tau advocates to comprehend the progression of Alzheimer’s disease precisely. In this review, we emphasize the recent studies about the toxic and shape-shifting nature of tau in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease.

EphA4 loss improves social memory performance and alters dendritic spine morphology without changes in amyloid pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Background

EphA4 is a receptor of the ephrin system regulating spine morphology and plasticity in the brain. These processes are pivotal in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), characterized by synapse dysfunction and loss, and the progressive loss of memory and other cognitive functions. Reduced EphA4 signaling has been shown to rescue beta-amyloid-induced dendritic spine loss and long-term potentiation (LTP) deficits in cultured hippocampal slices and primary hippocampal cultures. In this study, we investigated whether EphA4 ablation might preserve synapse function and ameliorate cognitive performance in the APPPS1 transgenic mouse model of AD.

Methods

A postnatal genetic ablation of EphA4 in the forebrain was established in the APPPS1 mouse model of AD, followed by a battery of cognitive tests at 9 months of age to investigate cognitive function upon EphA4 loss. A Golgi-Cox staining was used to explore alterations in dendritic spine density and morphology in the CA1 region of the hippocampus.

Results

Upon EphA4 loss in APPPS1 mice, we observed improved social memory in the preference for social novelty test without affecting other cognitive functions. Dendritic spine analysis revealed altered synapse morphology as characterized by increased dendritic spine length and head width. These modifications were independent of hippocampal plaque load and beta-amyloid peptide levels since these were similar in mice with normal versus reduced levels of EphA4.

Conclusion

Loss of EphA4 improved social memory in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease in association with alterations in spine morphology.

Disease-modifying strategies in primary tauopathies

Tauopathies are neurodegenerative brain diseases that are characterized by the formation of intraneuronal inclusions containing the microtubule-associated protein tau. This major hallmark defines tau pathology which is predominant in primary tauopathies, while in secondary forms additional driving forces are involved. In the course of the disease, different brain areas degenerate and lead to severe defects of language, behavior and movement. Although neuropathologically heterogeneous, primary tauopathies share a common feature, which is the generation of abnormal tau species that aggregate and progress into filamentous deposits in neurons. Mechanisms that are involved in this disease-related process offer a broad range of targets for disease-modifying therapeutics. The present review provides an up-to-date overview of currently known targets in primary tauopathies and their possible therapeutic modulation. It is structured into four major targets, the post-translational modifications of tau and tau aggregation, protein homeostasis, disease propagation, and tau genetics. Chances, as well as obstacles in the development of effective therapies are highlighted. Some therapeutic strategies, e.g., passive or active immunization, have already reached clinical development, raising hopes for affected patients. Other concepts, e.g., distinct modulators of proteostasis, are at the ready to be developed into promising future therapies. This article is part of the special issue entitled 'The Quest for Disease-Modifying Therapies for Neurodegenerative Disorders'.

Chronic Lithium Treatment Increases Telomere Length in Parietal Cortex and Hippocampus of Triple-Transgenic Alzheimer's Disease Mice

Telomere length (TL) is a biomarker of cell aging, and its shortening has been linked to several age-related diseases. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), telomere shortening has been associated with neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. The majority of studies on TL in AD were based on leucocyte DNA, with little information about its status in the central nervous system. In addition to other neuroprotective effects, lithium has been implicated in the maintenance of TL. The present study aims to determine the effect of chronic lithium treatment on TL in different regions of the mouse brain, using a triple-transgenic mouse model (3xTg-AD). Eighteen transgenic and 22 wild-type (Wt) male mice were treated for eight months with chow containing 1.0 g (Li1) or 2.0 g (Li2) of lithium carbonate/kg, or standard chow (Li0). DNA was extracted from parietal cortex, hippocampus and olfactory epithelium and TL was quantified by real-time PCR. Chronic lithium treatment was associated with longer telomeres in the hippocampus (Li2, p = 0.0159) and in the parietal cortex (Li1, p = 0.0375) of 3xTg-AD compared to Wt. Our findings suggest that chronic lithium treatment does affect telomere maintenance, but the magnitude and nature of this effect depend on the working concentrations of lithium and characteristics of the tissue. This effect was observed when comparing 3xTg-AD with Wt mice, suggesting that the presence of AD pathology was required for the lithium modulation of TL.

BACE1 inhibitors: Current status and future directions in treating Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an irreversible, progressive neurodegenerative brain disorder with no current cure. One of the important therapeutic approaches of AD is the inhibition of β-site APP cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE1), which is involved in the rate-limiting step of the cleavage process of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) leading to the generation of the neurotoxic amyloid β (Aβ) protein after the γ-secretase completes its function. The produced insoluble Aβ aggregates lead to plaques deposition and neurodegeneration. BACE1 is, therefore, one of the attractive targets for the treatment of AD. This approach led to the development of potent BACE1 inhibitors, many of which were advanced to late stages in clinical trials. Nonetheless, the high failure rate of lead drug candidates targeting BACE1 brought to the forefront the need for finding new targets to uncover the mystery behind AD. In this review, we aim to discuss the most promising classes of BACE1 inhibitors with a description and analysis of their pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic parameters, with more focus on the lead drug candidates that reached late stages of clinical trials, such as MK8931, AZD-3293, JNJ-54861911, E2609, and CNP520. In addition, the manuscript discusses the safety concerns and insignificant physiological effects, which were highlighted for the most successful BACE1 inhibitors. Furthermore, the review demonstrates with increasing evidence that despite tremendous efforts and promising results conceived with BACE1 inhibitors, the latest studies suggest that their clinical use for treating Alzheimer's disease should be reconsidered. Finally, the review sheds light on alternative therapeutic options for targeting AD.

Biopharmaceutical Monotargeting versus 'Universal Targeting' of Late-Onset Alzheimer's Disease Using Mixtures of Pleiotropic Natural Compounds

A five-year close reading of the scientific literature on late-onset Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has prompted the invention of a novel therapeutic method that biomechanistically targets the targetable disease-process targets of AD with one or another mixture of non-toxic pleiotropic natural compounds. The featured mixture herein is comprised of curcumin, resveratrol, and EGCG. The mixture’s targets include central pathological elements of AD (including amyloid, tau, synaptic dysfunction, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and aberrant neuroinflammation), modifiable risk factors, comorbidities, and epigenetic elements. The featured mixture and other such mixtures are suitable for long-term use, and may be applied to any stage of AD, including primary and secondary prevention. Such mixtures also would be amenable for use as pre-treatment, co-treatment, and post-treatment applications with certain biopharmaceutical agents. The targeting focus here is the major credible hypotheses of AD. The focus of future such articles will include other AD-related targets, modifiable risk factors and comorbidities, APOE4, epigenetic factors, bioavailability, dose response, and implications for clinical testing. The “universal targeting” method described herein—that is, “targeting the targetable targets” of AD using certain mixtures of natural compounds—is reprogrammable and thus is applicable to other chronic neurological conditions, including Parkinson’s disease, vascular dementia, ischemic-stroke prevention and recovery, and sports-related head injuries and sequelae leading to chronic traumatic encephalopathy.

14-3-3/Tau Interaction and Tau Amyloidogenesis

The major function of microtubule-associated protein tau is to promote microtubule assembly in the central nervous system. However, aggregation of abnormally phosphorylated tau is a hallmark of tauopathies. Although the molecular mechanisms of conformational transitions and assembling of tau molecules into amyloid fibril remain largely unknown, several factors have been shown to promote tau aggregation, including mutations, polyanions, phosphorylation, and interactions with other proteins. 14-3-3 proteins are a family of highly conserved, multifunctional proteins that are mainly expressed in the central nervous system. Being a scaffolding protein, 14-3-3 proteins interact with tau and regulate tau phosphorylation by bridging tau with various protein kinases. 14-3-3 proteins also directly regulate tau aggregation via specific and non-specific interactions with tau. In this review, we summarize recent advances in characterization of tau conformation and tau/14-3-3 interaction. We discuss the connection between 14-3-3 binding and tau aggregation with a special emphasis on the regulatory role of 14-3-3 on tau conformation.

Tauopathies: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies

Tauopathies are morphologically, biochemically, and clinically heterogeneous neurodegenerative diseases defined by the accumulation of abnormal tau proteins in the brain. There is no effective method to prevent and reverse the tauopathies, but this gloomy picture has been changed by recent research advances. Evidences from genetic studies, experimental animal models, and molecular and cell biology have shed light on the main mechanisms of the diseases. The development of radiology and biochemistry, especially the development of PET imaging, will provide important biomarkers for the clinical diagnosis and treatment. Given the central role of tau in tauopathies, many treatments have constantly emerged, including targeting phosphorylation, targeting aggregation, increasing microtubule stabilization, tau immunization, clearance of tau, anti-inflammatory treatment, and other therapeutics. There is still a long way to go before we obtain drug therapy targeted at multifactor mechanisms.

Administration of Momordica charantia Enhances the Neuroprotection and Reduces the Side Effects of LiCl in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Recently, the use of natural food supplements to reduce the side effects of chemical compounds used for the treatment of various diseases has become popular. Lithium chloride (LiCl) has some protective effects in neurological diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, its toxic effects on various systems and some relevant interactions with other drugs limit its broader use in clinical practice. In this study, we investigated the in vitro and in vivo pharmacological functions of LiCl combined with Momordica charantia (MC) in the treatment of AD. The in vitro results show that the order of the neuroprotective effect is MC5, MC3, MC2, and MC5523 under hyperglycemia or tau hyperphosphorylation. Therefore, MC5523 (80 mg/kg; oral gavage) and/or LiCl (141.3 mg/kg; intraperitoneal injection) were applied to ovariectomized (OVX) 3×Tg-AD female and C57BL/6J (B6) male mice that received intracerebroventricular injections of streptozotocin (icv-STZ, 3 mg/kg) for 28 days. We found that the combined treatment not only increased the survival rate by reducing hepatotoxicity but also increased neuroprotection associated with anti-gliosis in the icv-STZ OVX 3×Tg-AD mice. Furthermore, the cotreatment with MC5523 and LiCl prevented memory deficits associated with reduced neuronal loss, gliosis, oligomeric Aβ level, and tau hyperphosphorylation and increased the expression levels of synaptic-related protein and pS9-GSK3β (inactive form) in the icv-STZ B6 mice. Therefore, MC5523 combined with LiCl could be a potential strategy for the treatment of AD.

GSK3β-mediated tau hyperphosphorylation triggers diabetic retinal neurodegeneration by disrupting synaptic and mitochondrial functions

Background

Although diabetic retinopathy (DR) has long been considered as a microvascular disorder, mounting evidence suggests that diabetic retinal neurodegeneration, in particular synaptic loss and dysfunction of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) may precede retinal microvascular changes. Key molecules involved in this process remain poorly defined. The microtubule-associated protein tau is a critical mediator of neurotoxicity in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative diseases. However, the effect of tau, if any, in the context of diabetes-induced retinal neurodegeneration has yet to be ascertained. Here, we investigate the changes and putative roles of endogeneous tau in diabetic retinal neurodegeneration.

Methods

To this aim, we combine clinically used electrophysiological techniques, i.e. pattern electroretinogram and visual evoked potential, and molecular analyses in a well characterized high-fat diet (HFD)-induced mouse diabetes model in vivo and primary retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in vitro.

Results

We demonstrate for the first time that tau hyperphosphorylation via GSK3β activation causes vision deficits and synapse loss of RGCs in HFD-induced DR, which precedes retinal microvasculopathy and RGCs apoptosis. Moreover, intravitreal administration of an siRNA targeting to tau or a specific inhibitor of GSK3β reverses synapse loss and restores visual function of RGCs by attenuating tau hyperphosphorylation within a certain time frame of DR. The cellular mechanisms by which hyperphosphorylated tau induces synapse loss of RGCs upon glucolipotoxicity include i) destabilizing microtubule tracks and impairing microtubule-dependent synaptic targeting of cargoes such as mRNA and mitochondria; ii) disrupting synaptic energy production through mitochondria in a GSK3β-dependent manner.

Conclusions

Our study proposes mild retinal tauopathy as a new pathophysiological model for DR and tau as a novel therapeutic target to counter diabetic RGCs neurodegeneration occurring before retinal vasculature abnormalities.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13024-018-0295-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Modulating Protein Phosphatase 2A Rescues Disease Phenotype in Neurodegenerative Tauopathies

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia worldwide accounting for around 70% of all cases. There is currently no treatment for AD beyond symptom management and attempts at developing disease-modifying therapies have yielded very little. These strategies have traditionally targeted the peptide Aβ, which is thought to drive pathology. However, the lack of clinical translation of these Aβ-centric strategies underscores the need for diverse treatment strategies targeting other aspects of the disease. Metal dyshomeostasis is a common feature of several neurodegenerative diseases such as AD, Parkinson's disease, and frontotemporal dementia, and manipulation of metal homeostasis has been explored as a potential therapeutic avenue for these diseases. The copper ionophore glyoxalbis-[N4-methylthiosemicarbazonato]Cu(II) (Cu^II(gtsm)) has previously been shown to improve the cognitive deficits seen in an AD animal model; however, the molecular mechanism remained unclear. Here we report that the treatment of two animal tauopathy models (APP/PS1 and rTg4510) with Cu^II(gtsm) recovers the cognitive deficits seen in both neurodegenerative models. In both models, markers of tau pathology were significantly reduced with Cu^II(gtsm) treatment, and in the APP/PS1 model, the levels of Aβ remained unchanged. Analysis of tau kinases (GSK3β and CDK5) revealed no drug induced changes; however, both models exhibited a significant increase in the levels of the structural subunit of the tau phosphatase, PP2A. These findings suggest that targeting the tau phosphatase PP2A has therapeutic potential for preventing memory impairments and reducing the tau pathology seen in AD and other tauopathies.

Combining in vitro and in silico Approaches to Find New Candidate Drugs Targeting the Pathological Proteins Related to the Alzheimer's Disease

Background: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) as the most common cause of dementia among older people has aroused the universal concern of the whole world. However, until now there is still none effective treatments. Consequently, the development of new drugs targeting this complicated brain disorder is urgent and needs more efforts. In this review, we detailed the current state of knowledge about new candidate drugs targeting the pathological proteins especially the drugs which are employed using the combined methods of in vitro and in silico.

Methods: We looked up and reviewed online papers related to the pathogenesis and new drugs development of AD. Then, articles up to the requirements were respectively analyzed and summaried to provide the latest knowledge about the pathogenic effect and the new candidate drugs targeting Aβ and Tau proteins.

Results: New candidate drugs targeting the Aβ include decreasing the production, promoting the clearence and preventing aggregation. However these drugs have mostly failed in Phase III clinical trial stage due to the unsuccessful of reversing cognition symptoms. As to tau protein, the prevention of tau aggregation and propagation is a promising strategy to synthesize/design mechanism-based drugs against tauopathies. Some candidate drugs are under research. Moreover, because of the complex pathogenesis of AD, multi-target drugs have also shed light on the treatment of AD.

Conclusion: Given to the consecutive failure of Aβ-directed drugs and the feasibilities of tau-targeted therapy, more and more researchers suggested that the AD treatment should be moved from Aβ to tau or focused on considering the soluble form of Aβ and tau as a whole. Moreover, the novel in silico methods also have great potential in drug discovery, drug repositioning, virtual screening of chemical libraries. No matter how many difficulties and challenges in prevention and treatment of AD, we firmly believe that the effective and safe drugs will be found using the combined methods in the immediate future with the global effort.

Azure C Targets and Modulates Toxic Tau Oligomers

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common age-related neurodegenerative disorder affecting millions of people worldwide. Therefore, finding effective interventions and therapies is extremely important. AD is one of over 20 different disorders known as tauopathies, characterized by the pathological aggregation and accumulation of tau, a microtubule-associated protein. Tau aggregates are heterogeneous and can be divided into two major groups: large metastable fibrils, including neurofibrillary tangles, and oligomers. The smaller, soluble and dynamic tau oligomers have been shown to be more toxic with more proficient seeding properties for the propagation of tau pathology as compared to the fibrillar Paired Helical Filaments (PHFs). Therefore, developing small molecules that target and interact with toxic tau oligomers can be beneficial to modulate their aggregation pathways and toxicity, preventing progression of the pathology. In this study, we show that Azure C (AC) is capable of modulating tau oligomer aggregation pathways at micromolar concentrations and rescues tau oligomers-induced toxicity in cell culture. We used both biochemical and biophysical in vitro techniques to characterize preformed tau oligomers in the presence and absence of AC. Interestingly, AC prevents toxicity not by disassembling the oligomers but rather by converting them into clusters of aggregates with nontoxic conformation.

Infection of Fungi and Bacteria in Brain Tissue From Elderly Persons and Patients With Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia in elderly people. The etiology of this disease remains a matter of intensive research in many laboratories. We have advanced the idea that disseminated fungal infection contributes to the etiology of AD. Thus, we have demonstrated that fungal proteins and DNA are present in nervous tissue from AD patients. More recently, we have reported that bacterial infections can accompany these mycoses, suggesting that polymicrobial infections exist in AD brains. In the present study, we have examined fungal and bacterial infection in brain tissue from AD patients and control subjects by immunohistochemistry. In addition, we have documented the fungal and bacterial species in brain regions from AD patients and control subjects by next-generation sequencing (NGS). Our results from the analysis of ten AD patients reveal a variety of fungal and bacterial species, although some were more prominent than others. The fungal genera more prevalent in AD patients were Alternaria, Botrytis, Candida, and Malassezia. We also compared these genera with those found in elderly and younger subjects. One of the most prominent genera in control subjects was Fusarium. Principal component analysis clearly indicated that fungi from frontal cortex samples of AD brains clustered together and differed from those of equivalent control subjects. Regarding bacterial infection, the phylum Proteobacteria was the most prominent in both AD patients and controls, followed by Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroides. At the family level, Burkholderiaceae and Staphylococcaceae exhibited higher percentages in AD brains than in control brains. These findings could be of interest to guide targeted antimicrobial therapy for AD patients. Moreover, the variety of microbial species in each patient may constitute a basis for a better understanding of the evolution and severity of clinical symptoms in each patient.

Modulation of γ- and β-Secretases as Early Prevention Against Alzheimer's Disease

The genetic evidence implicating amyloid-β in the initial stage of Alzheimer's disease is unequivocal. However, the long biochemical and cellular prodromal phases of the disease suggest that dementia is the result of a series of molecular and cellular cascades whose nature and connections remain unknown. Therefore, it is unlikely that treatments directed at amyloid-β will have major clinical effects in the later stages of the disease. We discuss the two major candidate therapeutic targets to lower amyloid-β in a preventive mode, i.e., γ- and β-secretase; the rationale behind these two targets; and the current state of the field.

Revealing Conformational Variants of Solution-Phase Intrinsically Disordered Tau Protein at the Single-Molecule Level

Intrinsically disordered proteins, such as tau protein, adopt a variety of conformations in solution, complicating solution-phase structural studies. We employed an anti-Brownian electrokinetic (ABEL) trap to prolong measurements of single tau proteins in solution. Once trapped, we recorded the fluorescence anisotropy to investigate the diversity of conformations sampled by the single molecules. A distribution of anisotropy values obtained from trapped tau protein is conspicuously bimodal while those obtained by trapping a globular protein or individual fluorophores are not. Time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy measurements were used to provide an explanation of the bimodal distribution as originating from a shift in the compaction of the two different families of conformations.

Alterations in Hippocampal Activity and Alzheimer's Disease

The aging population and those with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) are at increased risk for developing Alzheimer's disease (AD). Individuals with aMCI in particular may display pathological changes in brain function that may ultimately result in a diagnosis of AD. This review focuses specifically on hippocampal hyperexcitability, a pathology that is sometimes detectable years before diagnosis, which has been observed in individuals with aMCI. We describe how changes in hippocampal activity are associated with, or in some cases may be permissive for, the development of AD. Finally, we describe how lifestyle changes, including exercise and dietary changes can attenuate cognitive decline and hippocampal hyperexcitability, potentially reducing the risk of developing AD.

Central insulin dysregulation and energy dyshomeostasis in two mouse models of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder worldwide. While the causes of AD are not known, several risk factors have been identified. Among these, type two diabetes (T2D), a chronic metabolic disease, is one of the most prevalent risk factors for AD. Insulin resistance, which is associated with T2D, is defined as diminished or absent insulin signaling and is reflected by peripheral blood hyperglycemia and impaired glucose clearance. In this study, we used complementary approaches to probe for peripheral insulin resistance, central nervous system (CNS) insulin sensitivity and energy homeostasis in Tg2576 and 3xTg-AD mice, two widely used animal models of AD. We report that CNS insulin signaling abnormalities are evident months before peripheral insulin resistance. In addition, we find that brain energy metabolism is differentially altered in both mouse models, with 3xTg-AD mice showing more extensive changes. Collectively, our data suggest that early AD may reflect engagement of different signaling networks that influence CNS metabolism, which in turn may alter peripheral insulin signaling.

Tau Accumulation, Altered Phosphorylation, and Missorting Promote Neurodegeneration in Glaucoma

Glaucoma, the leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide, is characterized by the selective death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Ocular hypertension is the most significant known risk factor for developing the disease, but the mechanism by which elevated pressure damages RGCs is currently unknown. The axonal-enriched microtubule-associated protein tau is a key mediator of neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's disease and other tauopathies. Using a well characterized in vivo rat glaucoma model, we show an age-related increase in endogenous retinal tau that was markedly exacerbated by ocular hypertension. Early alterations in tau phosphorylation, characterized by epitope-dependent hyperphosphorylation and hypophosphorylation, correlated with the appearance of tau oligomers in glaucomatous retinas. Our data demonstrate the mislocalization of tau in the somatodendritic compartment of RGCs subjected to high intraocular pressure. In contrast, tau was depleted from RGC axons in the optic nerve of glaucomatous eyes. Importantly, intraocular administration of short interfering RNA against tau effectively reduced retinal tau accumulation and promoted robust survival of RGC somas and axons, supporting a critical role for tau alterations in ocular hypertension-induced neuronal damage. Our study reveals that glaucoma displays signature pathological features of tauopathies, including tau accumulation, altered phosphorylation, and missorting; and identifies tau as a novel target to counter RGC neurodegeneration in glaucoma and prevalent optic neuropathies.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

In this study, we investigated the role of tau in retinal ganglion cell (RGC) damage in glaucoma. We demonstrate that high intraocular pressure leads to a rapid increase in endogenous retinal tau with altered phosphorylation profile and the formation of tau oligomers. Tau accumulation was primarily observed in RGC dendrites, while tau in RGC axons within the optic nerve was depleted. Attenuation of endogenous retinal tau using a targeted siRNA led to striking protection of RGC somas and axons from hypertension-induced damage. Our study identifies novel and substantial alterations of endogenous tau protein in glaucoma, including abnormal subcellular distribution, an altered phosphorylation profile, and neurotoxicity.

The Distance between N and C Termini of Tau and of FTDP-17 Mutants Is Modulated by Microtubule Interactions in Living Cells

The microtubule (MT)-associated protein Tau is a natively unfolded protein, involved in a number of neurodegenerative disorders, collectively called tauopathies, aggregating in neurofibrillary tangles (NFT). It is an open question how the conversion from a MT bound molecule to an aggregation-prone Tau species occurs and, also, if and how tauopathy-related mutations affect its behavior in the cell. To address these points, we exploited a genetically encoded FRET sensor based on the full length Tau protein, to monitor in real time Tau conformational changes in different conditions in live cells. By studying the FRET signal we found that soluble Tau molecules, detached from MTs, display an unfolded structure. On the contrary, we observed an increased FRET signal generated by Tau monomers bound to MT, indicating that the association with MTs induced a folding of Tau protein, decreasing the distance between its N and C termini. We exploited the FRET sensor to investigate the impact of FTDP-17 mutations and of phosphorylation-site mutations on Tau folding and mobility in live cells. We demonstrated that the FTDP-17 Tau mutations weaken the interaction of Tau with cellular MTs, shifting the equilibrium towards the soluble pool while, conversely, phosphorylation site mutations shift the equilibrium of Tau towards the MT-bound state and a more closed conformation.

Humanized monoclonal antibody armanezumab specific to N-terminus of pathological tau: characterization and therapeutic potency

Background

The experience from clinical trials indicates that anti-Aβ immunotherapy could be effective in early/pre-clinical stages of AD, whereas at the late stages promoting the clearing of Aβ alone may be insufficient to halt the disease progression. At the same time, pathological tau correlates much better with the degree of dementia than Aβ deposition. Therefore, targeting pathological tau may provide a more promising approach for the treatment of advanced stages of AD. Recent data demonstrates that the N-terminal region of tau spanning aa 2–18 termed “phosphatase activation domain” that is normally hidden in the native protein in ‘paperclip’-like conformation, becomes exposed in pathological tau and plays an essential role in the inhibition of fast axonal transport and in aggregation of tau. Hence, we hypothesized that anti-Tau_2–18 monoclonal antibodies (mAb) may recognize pathological, but not normal tau at very early stages of tauopathy and prevent or decrease the aggregation of this molecule.

Methods

Mouse mAbs were generated using standard hybridoma methodology. CDR grafting was used for humanization of mouse mAb. Humanized mAb (Armanezumab) was characterized and tested in vitro/ex vivo/in vivo using biochemical and immunological methods (HPLC, Biacore, ELISA, IHC, FRET, etc.). Stable DG44 cell line expressing Armanezumab was generated by clone selection with increased concentrations of methotrexate (MTX).

Results

A panel of mouse mAbs was generated, clone 1C9 was selected based on binding to pathological human tau with high affinity and humanized. Fine epitope mapping revealed conservation of the epitope of human tau recognized by the parent murine mAb and Armanezumab. Importantly, Armanezumab (i) bound to tau with high affinity as determined by Biacore; (ii) bound pathological tau in brains from AD, FTD and Pick’s disease cases; (iii) inhibited seeding effect of aggregated tau from brain lysate of P301S Tg mice; (iv) inhibited cytotoxic effect of tau oligomers; (v) reduced total tau (HT7) and AT100, PHF1, AT8, AT180, p212, p214-positive tau species in brains of tau transgenic mice after intracranial injection. A stable CHO cell line producing >1.5 g/l humanized mAb, Armanezumab was generated.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that Armanezumab could be therapeutic in clinical studies for treatment of AD.

Discovery of the first dual GSK3β inhibitor/Nrf2 inducer. A new multitarget therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease

The formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), oxidative stress and neuroinflammation have emerged as key targets for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder. These pathological hallmarks are closely related to the over-activity of the enzyme GSK3β and the downregulation of the defense pathway Nrf2-EpRE observed in AD patients. Herein, we report the synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of a new family of multitarget 2,4-dihydropyrano[2,3-c]pyrazoles as dual GSK3β inhibitors and Nrf2 inducers. These compounds are able to inhibit GSK3β and induce the Nrf2 phase II antioxidant and anti-inflammatory pathway at micromolar concentrations, showing interesting structure-activity relationships. The association of both activities has resulted in a remarkable anti-inflammatory ability with an interesting neuroprotective profile on in vitro models of neuronal death induced by oxidative stress and energy depletion and AD. Furthermore, none of the compounds exhibited in vitro neurotoxicity or hepatotoxicity and hence they had improved safety profiles compared to the known electrophilic Nrf2 inducers. In conclusion, the combination of both activities in this family of multitarget compounds confers them a notable interest for the development of lead compounds for the treatment of AD.

SLM, a novel carbazole-based fluorophore attenuates okadaic acid-induced tau hyperphosphorylation via down-regulating GSK-3β activity in SH-SY5Y cells

Phosphorylated tau dissociates from microtubules and aggregates to form neurofibrillary tangles resulting in neuronal toxicity and cognitive deficits. Attenuating tau hyperphosphorylation is considered as an effective therapeutic approach for Alzheimer's disease (AD). From our previous study, SLM, a carbazole-based fluorophore prevents Aβ aggregation, reduced glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) activity and tau hyperphosphorylation in triple transgenic mouse model of AD. However, the mechanism by which SLM attenuates tau hyperphosphorylation warrants further investigation. In the current study, we intend to evaluate the effects of SLM against okadaic acid (OA)-induced tau hyperphosphorylation and microtubules instability in human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cells. The results showed that, SLM reduced the OA-induced cell neurotoxicity and tau hyperphosphorylation in SH-SY5Y cells. SLM treatment down-regulated GSK-3β activity. However, in the presence of GSK-3β inhibitor (SB216763, 10μM), SLM treatment could not reduce GSK-3β activity and tau hyperphosphorylation as compared with SB216763 treatment alone. Furthermore, SLM treatment also ameliorated OA-induced microtubules instability and cytoskeleton damage. Collectively, SLM attenuated OA-induced tau hyperphosphorylation via down-regulating GSK-3β activity in SH-SY5Y cells. Therefore, this study supports SLM as a potential compound for AD and other tau pathology-related neurodegenerative disorders.