Pharmacology and toxicology of α- and β-Asarone: A review of preclinical evidence

Anethole in cancer therapy: Mechanisms, synergistic pHyungseo Bobbyotential, and clinical challenges

Cancer remains a major global health challenge, prompting the search for effective and less toxic treatments. Anethole, a bioactive compound found in essential oils of anise and fennel, commonly used as a food preservative, has recently garnered attention for its potential anti-cancer properties. This comprehensive review aims to systematically assess the anti-cancer effects of anethole, elucidating its mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, and synergistic potential with conventional cancer therapies. A detailed literature search was conducted across databases including PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Science Direct, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Criteria for inclusion were experimental studies in peer-reviewed journals focusing on the anti-cancer properties of anethole. Extracted data included study design, intervention specifics, measured outcomes, and mechanistic insights. Anethole demonstrates multiple anti-cancer mechanisms, such as inducing apoptosis, causing cell cycle arrest, exhibiting anti-proliferative and anti-angiogenic effects, and modulating critical signaling pathways including NF-κB, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, and caspases. It enhances the efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents like cisplatin and doxorubicin while reducing their toxicity. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown its effectiveness against various cancers, including breast, prostate, lung, and colorectal cancers. Anethole shows significant potential as an anti-cancer agent, with its multi-faceted mechanisms of action and ability to synergize with existing chemotherapy. Further clinical research is essential to fully understand its therapeutic potential and application in oncology.

Alpha-Asarone attenuates alcohol-induced hepatotoxicity in a murine model by ameliorating oxidative stress, inflammation, and modulating apoptotic-Autophagic cell death

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a major cause of chronic liver injury characterized by steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis. This study explored the hepatoprotective mechanisms of alpha-asarone in a mouse model of chronic-binge alcohol feeding. Adult male mice were randomized into control, alcohol, and alcohol plus alpha-asarone groups. Serum aminotransferases and histopathology assessed liver injury. Oxidative stress was evaluated via malondialdehyde content, glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and catalase activities. Pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 were quantified by ELISA. P53-mediated apoptosis was determined by immunohistochemistry. Key autophagy markers phospho-AMPK, AMPK, Beclin-1, LC3-I/LC3-II ratio, and LC3 were examined by immunoblotting. Alcohol administration increased serum ALT, AST and ALP, indicating hepatocellular damage. This liver dysfunction was associated with increased oxidative stress, inflammation, p53 expression and altered autophagy. Alpha-asarone treatment significantly decreased ALT, AST and ALP levels and improved histological architecture versus alcohol alone. Alpha-asarone also mitigated oxidative stress, reduced TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 levels, ameliorated p53 overexpression and favorably modulated autophagy markers. Our findings demonstrate that alpha-asarone confers protective effects against ALD by enhancing antioxidant defenses, suppressing hepatic inflammation, regulating apoptotic signaling, and restoring autophagic flux. This preclinical study provides compelling evidence for the therapeutic potential of alpha-asarone in attenuating alcohol-induced liver injury and warrants further evaluation as a pharmacotherapy for ALD.

Kai-Xin-San ameliorates Alzheimer's disease-related neuropathology and cognitive impairment in APP/PS1 mice via the mitochondrial autophagy-NLRP3 inflammasome pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Kai-Xin-San (KXS) is a classic famous prescription that has been utilized for centuries to address dementia. New investigations have shown that the anti-dementia effect of KXS is connected with improved neuroinflammation. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanism is not well elucidated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We propose to discover the ameliorative impact of KXS on Alzheimer's disease (AD) and its regulatory role on the mitochondrial autophagy-nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome pathway.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Y maze, Morris water maze, and new objection recognition tests were applied to ascertain the spatial learning and memory capacities of amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1 (APP/PS1) mice after KXS-treatment. Meanwhile, the biochemical indexes of the hippocampus were detected by reagent kits. The pathological alterations and mitochondrial autophagy in the mice' hippocampus were detected utilizing hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence staining, and transmission electron microscopy. Besides, the PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1)/Parkin and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways protein expressions were determined employing the immunoblot analysis.

RESULTS

The results of behavioral tests showed that KXS significantly enhanced the AD mice' spatial learning and memory capacities. Furthermore, KXS reversed the biochemical index levels and reduced amyloid-β protein deposition in AD mice brains. Besides, H&E staining showed that KXS remarkably ameliorated the neuronal damage in AD mice. Concurrently, the results of transmission electron microscopy suggest that KXS ameliorated the mitochondrial damage in microglia and promoted mitochondrial autophagy. Moreover, the immunofluorescence outcomes exhibited that KXS promoted the expression of protein 1 light chain 3B (LC3B) associated with microtubule and the generation of autophagic flux. Notably, the immunofluorescence co-localization results confirmed the presence of mitochondrial autophagy in microglia. Finally, KXS promoted the protein expressions of the PINK1/Parkin pathway and reduced the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Most importantly, these beneficial effects of KXS were attenuated by the mitochondrial autophagy inhibitor chloroquine.

CONCLUSION

KXS ameliorates AD-related neuropathology and cognitive impairment in APP/PS1 mice by enhancing the mitochondrial autophagy and suppressing the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway.

Analysis of the action mechanisms and targets of herbal anticonvulsants highlights opportunities for therapeutic engagement with refractory epilepsy

Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by spontaneous and recurring seizures. It poses significant therapeutic challenges due to diverse etiology, pathobiology, and pharmacotherapy-resistant variants. The anticonvulsive effects of herbal leads with biocompatibility and toxicity considerations have attracted much interest, inspiring mechanistic analysis with the view of their use for engagement of new targets and combination with antiseizure pharmacotherapies. This article presents a comprehensive overview of the key molecular players and putative action mechanisms of the most common antiepileptic herbals demonstrated in tissue culture and preclinical models. From the review of the literature, it emerges that their effects are mediated via five distinct mechanisms: (1) reduction of membrane excitability through inhibition of cation channels, (2) improvement of mitochondrial functions with antioxidant effects, (3) enhancement in synaptic transmission mediated by GABAA receptors, (4) improvement of immune response with anti-inflammatory action, and (5) suppression of protein synthesis and metabolism. While some of the primary targets and action mechanisms of herbal anticonvulsants (1, 3) are shared with antiseizure pharmacotherapies, herbal leads also engage with distinct mechanisms (2, 4, and 5), suggesting new drug targets and opportunities for their integration with antiseizure medications. Addressing outstanding questions through research and in silico modeling should facilitate the future use of herbals as auxiliary therapy in epilepsy and guide the development of treatment of pharmacoresistant seizures through rigorous trials and regulatory approval.

New Value of Acorus tatarinowii/gramineus Leaves as a Dietary Source for Dementia Prevention

The rhizomes of Acorus tatarinowii Schott and Acorus gramineus Solander are widely used for treating amnesia in traditional Chinese medicine. In contrast, their leaves are usually discarded without their medicinal properties being known. Here, we found that the hot water extract of leaves improved cognition and tau pathology in model mice of frontotemporal dementia, similar to or even better than that of rhizomes. To explore the optimal method of processing, we made three preparations from dried leaves: hot water extract, extraction residue, and non-extracted simple crush powder. Among them, the simple crush powder had the strongest effect on tauopathy in mice. The crush powder also ameliorated Aβ and α-synuclein pathologies and restored cognition in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. These findings suggest the potential of Acorus tatarinowii/gramineus leaves as a dietary source for dementia prevention and reveal that simple crushing is a better way to maximize their efficacy.

β-asarone inhibits autophagy by activating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in a rat model of depression in Parkinson's disease

OBJECTIVE

It is unclear whether β-asarone has a good antidepressant effect and what is the main mechanism in Depression in Parkinson's disease (DPD) model rats.

METHODS

In this study, DPD model rats were screened from 6-OHDA induced rats by sucrose preference test (SPT) and forced swimming test (FST). DPD model rats were divided into eight groups: model group, pramipexole group, β-asarone low-dose group (β-asarone 7.5 group), β-asarone medium-dose group (β-asarone 15 group), β-asarone high-dose group (β-asarone 30 group), 3-MA group, rapamycin group, and PI3K inhibitor group. 28 days after the end of treatment, open field test (OFT), SPT and FST were conducted in rats. The level of α-synuclein (α-syn) in the striatum was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The expression of Beclin-1, p62 in the striatum was determined by western blot. The expression of PI3K, p-PI3K, Akt, p-Akt, mTOR, p-mTOR, Beclin-1, and p62 in the hippocampus was determined by western blot. The spine density of neurons in the hippocampus was detected by golgi staining.

RESULTS

The results showed that 4-week oral administration of β-asarone improve the motor and depressive symptoms of DPD model rats, and decrease the content of α-syn in the striatum. β-asarone inhibited the expression of autophagy in the striatum of DPD model rats. Furthermore, β-asarone decreased the levels of Beclin-1 protein, increased the expression of p62, p-PI3K, p-AKT, and p-mTOR, and improved the density of neuron dendritic spine in the hippocampus.

CONCLUSIONS

We concluded that β-asarone might improve the behavior of DPD model rats by activating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, inhibiting autophagy and protecting neuron.

The circadian rhythm: A new target of natural products that can protect against diseases of the metabolic system, cardiovascular system, and nervous system

BACKGROUND

The treatment of metabolic system, cardiovascular system, and nervous system diseases remains to be explored. In the internal environment of organisms, the metabolism of substances such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins (including biohormones and enzymes) exhibit a certain circadian rhythm to maintain the energy supply and material cycle needed for the normal activities of organisms. As a key factor for the health of organisms, the circadian rhythm can be disrupted by pathological conditions, and this disruption accelerates the progression of diseases and results in a vicious cycle. The current treatments targeting the circadian rhythm for the treatment of metabolic system, cardiovascular system, and nervous system diseases have certain limitations, and the identification of safer and more effective circadian rhythm regulators is needed.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

To systematically assess the possibility of using the biological clock as a natural product target for disease intervention, this work reviews a range of evidence on the potential effectiveness of natural products targeting the circadian rhythm to protect against diseases of the metabolic system, cardiovascular system, and nervous system. This manuscript focuses on how natural products restore normal function by affecting the amplitude of the expression of circadian factors, sleep/wake cycles and the structure of the gut microbiota.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF THE REVIEW

This work proposes that the circadian rhythm, which is regulated by the amplitude of the expression of circadian rhythm-related factors and the sleep/wake cycle, is crucial for diseases of the metabolic system, cardiovascular system and nervous system and is a new target for slowing the progression of diseases through the use of natural products. This manuscript provides a reference for the molecular modeling of natural products that target the circadian rhythm and provides a new perspective for the time-targeted action of drugs.

Alpha-Asarone Ameliorates Neurological Dysfunction of Subarachnoid Hemorrhagic Rats in Both Acute and Recovery Phases via Regulating the CaMKII-Dependent Pathways

Early brain injury (EBI) is the leading cause of poor prognosis for patients suffering from subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), particularly learning and memory deficits in the repair phase. A recent report has involved calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) in the pathophysiological process underlying SAH-induced EBI. Alpha-asarone (ASA), a major compound isolated from the Chinese medicinal herb Acorus tatarinowii Schott, was proven to reduce secondary brain injury by decreasing CaMKII over-phosphorylation in rats' model of intracerebral hemorrhage in our previous report. However, the effect of ASA on SAH remains unclear, and the role of CaMKII in both acute and recovery stages of SAH needs further investigation. In this work, we first established a classic SAH rat model by endovascular perforation and intraperitoneally administrated different ASA doses (10, 20, and 40 mg/kg) 2 h after successful modeling. Then, the short- and long-term neurobehavioral performances were blindly evaluated to confirm ASA's efficacy against SAH. Subsequently, we explored ASA's therapeutic mechanism in both acute and recovery stages using histopathological examination, TUNEL staining, flow cytometry, Western-blot, double-immunofluorescence staining, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observation. Finally, KN93, a selective CaMKII inhibitor, was applied in oxyhemoglobin-damaged HT22 cells to explore the role of CaMKII in ASA's neuroprotective effect. The results demonstrated that ASA alleviated short- and long-term neurological dysfunction, reduced mortality and seizure rate within 24 h, and prolonged 14-day survival in SAH rats. Histopathological examination showed a reduction of neuronal damage and a restoration of the hippocampal structure after ASA treatment in both acute and recovery phases of SAH. In the acute stage, the Western-blot and flow cytometer analyses showed that ASA restored E/I balance, reduced calcium overload and CaMKII phosphorylation, and inhibited mitochondrion-involved apoptosis, thus preventing neuronal damage and apoptosis underlying EBI post-SAH. In the recovery stage, the TEM observation, double-immunofluorescence staining, and Western-blot analyses indicated that ASA increased the numbers of synapses and enhanced synaptic plasticity in the ipsilateral hippocampi, probably by promoting NR2B/CaMKII interaction and activating subsequent CREB/BDNF/TrkB signaling pathways. Furthermore, KN93 notably reversed ASA's neuroprotective effect on oxyhemoglobin-damaged HT22 cells, confirming CaMKII a potential target for ASA's efficacy against SAH. Our study confirmed for the first time that ASA ameliorated the SAH rats' neurobehavioral deterioration, possibly via modulating CaMKII-involved pathways. These findings provided a promising candidate for the clinical treatment of SAH and shed light on future drug discovery against SAH.

Advancements in research on the immune-inflammatory mechanisms mediated by NLRP3 inflammasome in ischemic stroke and the regulatory role of natural plant products

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a major cause of mortality and disability among adults. Recanalization of blood vessels to facilitate timely reperfusion is the primary clinical approach; however, reperfusion itself may trigger cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Emerging evidence strongly implicates the NLRP3 inflammasome as a potential therapeutic target, playing a key role in cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury. The aberrant expression and function of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated inflammation in cerebral ischemia have garnered considerable attention as a recent research focus. Accordingly, this review provides a comprehensive summary of the signaling pathways, pathological mechanisms, and intricate interactions involving NLRP3 inflammasomes in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Moreover, notable progress has been made in investigating the impact of natural plant products (e.g., Proanthocyanidins, methylliensinine, salidroside, α-asarone, acacia, curcumin, morin, ginsenoside Rd, paeoniflorin, breviscapine, sulforaphane, etc.) on regulating cerebral ischemia and reperfusion by modulating the NLRP3 inflammasome and mitigating the release of inflammatory cytokines. These findings aim to present novel insights that could contribute to the prevention and treatment of cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury.

Constituents, pharmacological activities, pharmacokinetic studies, clinical applications, and safety profile on the classical prescription Kaixinsan

Kaixinsan (KXS) is a noteworthy classical prescription, which consists of four Chinese medicinal herbs, namely Polygalae Radix, Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, Poria, and Acori Tatarinowii Rhizoma. KXS was initially documented in the Chinese ancient book Beiji Qianjin Yaofang written by Sun Simiao of the Tang Dynasty in 652 A.D. As a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) prescription, it functions to nourish the heart and replenish Qi, calm the heart tranquilize the mind, and excrete dampness. Originally used to treat amnesia, it is now also effective in memory decline and applied to depression. Although there remains an abundance of literature investigating KXS from multiple aspects, few reviews summarize the features and research, which impedes better exploration and exploitation of KXS. This article intends to comprehensively analyze and summarize up-to-date information concerning the chemical constituents, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, clinical applications, and safety of KXS based on the scientific literature, as well as to examine possible scientific gaps in current research and tackle issues in the next step. The chemical constituents of KXS primarily consist of saponins, xanthones, oligosaccharide esters, triterpenoids, volatile oils, and flavonoids. Of these, saponins are the predominant active ingredients, and increasing evidence has indicated that they exert therapeutic properties against mental disease. Pharmacokinetic research has illustrated that the crucial exposed substances in rat plasma after KXS administration are ginsenoside Re (GRe), ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1), and polygalaxanthone III (POL). This article provides additional descriptions of the safety. In this review, current issues are highlighted to guide further comprehensive research of KXS and other classical prescriptions.

Hexane Fraction of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica Root Extract Inhibits Angiogenesis and Endothelial Cell-Induced Erlotinib Resistance in Lung Cancer Cells

The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-angiogenic effects of the hexane fraction of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica root extract (HAT) and its influence on the development of erlotinib resistance in human lung cancer cells. HAT significantly reduced the migration, invasion, and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The phosphorylation levels of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) and its downstream molecules were decreased via HAT, indicating its anti-angiogenic potential in endothelial cells (ECs). A docking analysis demonstrated that β-sitosterol and lupeol, representative components of HAT, exhibit a high affinity for binding to VEGFR2. In addition, conditioned media from HAT-pretreated H1299 human lung cancer cells attenuated cancer-cell-induced chemotaxis of HUVECs, which was attributed to the decreased expression of angiogenic and chemotactic factors in H1299 cells. Interestingly, co-culture of erlotinib-sensitive PC9 human lung cancer cells with HUVECs induced erlotinib resistance in PC9 cells. However, co-culture with HAT-pretreated HUVECs partially restored the sensitivity of PC9 cells to erlotinib. HAT inhibited the development of erlotinib resistance by attenuating hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) production by ECs. Taken together, our results demonstrate that HAT exerts its anticancer effects by regulating the crosstalk between ECs and lung cancer cells.

β-asarone improves cognitive impairment and alleviates autophagy in mice with vascular dementia via the cAMP/PKA/CREB pathway

BACKGROUND

Vascular dementia (VD) is the second most common type of dementia after Alzheimer's disease. β-asarone, a major component of Acorus tatarinowii Schott, is important in neurodegenerative and neurovascular diseases. Studies have confirmed that β-asarone can mitigate autophagy and reduce damage in hypoxic cells. We also reported that β-asarone improves learning and memory. This study further clarifies whether β-asarone attenuates cerebral ischaemic injury by acting through the cAMP/PKA/CREB pathway in VD model mice.

METHODS

Here, genes and potential pathways that may be targeted by β-asarone for the treatment of transient cerebral ischaemia (TCI) and cognitive impairment (CI) were obtained using network pharmacology. The two-vessel occlusion method was used to establish the VD model. The Morris water maze test was used to evaluate the effects on memory. Then, the protein levels of mitofusin-2 (Mfn2), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), optic atrophy 1 (OPA1), cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), myelin basic protein (MBP), matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) and neuron specific enolase (NSE) were determined by ELISA. The levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malonaldehyde (MDA) were measured using commercial kits. Then, qRT-PCR was employed to investigate the expression of the candidate genes screened from the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. Furthermore, the expression of the autophagy-related proteins Beclin-1, (microtubule-associated protein light chain 3) LC3, p62, postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95), protein kinase A (PKA), pPKA, cyclic-AMP response binding protein (CREB), and pCREB was determined by western blotting. The expression of autophagy-related proteins, PSD95 and translocase of outer mitochondrial membrane 20 (TOM20) was determined by immunofluorescence analyses.

RESULTS

The network pharmacological analysis showed 234 targets related to β-asarone, 1,118 genes related to TCI and 2,039 genes associated with CI. Our results confirm that β-asarone treatment not only alleviated brain damage in the VD model by improving mitochondrial and synaptic function, reducing neuronal injury and upregulating the expression of antioxidants but also effectively improved the cognitive behaviour of VD model mice. Moreover, β-asarone downregulated VD-induced RELA and CCND1 mRNA expression. In addition, we validated that β-asarone increased the phosphorylation of PKA and CREB and upregulated cAMP protein expression. The results showed that the cAMP/PKA/CREB signalling pathway was upregulated. Moreover, β-asarone administration decreased the protein expression levels of Beclin-1 and LC3 and increased the expression levels of p62 in VD model mice.

CONCLUSIONS

β-asarone inhibits Beclin-1-dependent autophagy and upregulates the cAMP/PKA/CREB signalling pathway to attenuate mitochondrial and synaptic damage from cerebral ischaemia and improve learning and cognitive abilities in VD model mice.

Ethnic, Botanic, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of the Acorus L. Genus: A Review

The genus Acorus, a perennial monocotyledonous-class herb and part of the Acoraceae family, is widely distributed in the temperate and subtropical zones of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Acorus is rich in biological activities and can be used to treat various diseases of the nervous system, cardiovascular system, and digestive system, including Alzheimer's disease, depression, epilepsy, hyperlipidemia, and indigestion. Recently, it has been widely used to improve eutrophic water and control heavy-metal-polluted water. Thus far, only three species of Acorus have been reported in terms of chemical components and pharmacological activities. Previously published reviews have not further distinguished or comprehensively expounded the chemical components and pharmacological activities of Acorus plants. By carrying out a literature search, we collected documents closely related to Acorus published from 1956 to 2022. We then performed a comprehensive and systematic review of the genus Acorus from different perspectives, including botanical aspects, ethnic applications, phytochemistry aspects, and pharmacological aspects. Our aim was to provide a basis for further research and the development of new concepts.

Neurovascular glial unit: A target of phytotherapy for cognitive impairments

BACKGROUND

Neurovascular glial unit (NVGU) dysfunction has been reported to be an early and critical event in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and vascular dementia (VD). Although herbal medicines, with their favorable safety profiles and low adverse effects, have been suggested to be useful for the treatment of cognitive impairment, the potential role of the NVGU as the target of the effects of herbal medicines is still unclear.

PURPOSE

This review aimed to retrieve evidence from experimental studies of phytopharmaceuticals targeting the NVGU for the treatment of cognitive impairment in AD and VD, and discussed the potential of phytopharmaceuticals to improve cognitive impairment from the perspective of the NVGU.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

We systematically searched PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and CNKI. The keywords used for searching information on the NVGU in the treatment of cognitive impairments included "Alzheimer's disease," "Vascular dementia," "Herbal medicines," "Natural products," "Neurovascular," "Adverse reaction," and "Toxicity, etc." We selected studies on the basis of predefined eligibility criteria.

RESULTS

NVGU mainly consists of endothelial cells, pericytes, astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, and neurons, and damage to these cells can induce cognitive impairment by impairing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and cerebral blood flow (CBF) as well as neuronal function. The active components of herbal medicines, including Ginkgo biloba L., Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, Epimedium Folium, Chuanxiong Rhizoma, Carthami flos, and Acorus tatarinowii Schott, as well as traditional Chinese medicine prescriptions have shown the potential to improve BBB function and increase CBF to prevent cognitive impairment by inhibiting astrocyte and microglia activation, protecting oligodendrocyte myelin function, reducing neuronal apoptosis, and promoting angiogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

Herbal medicines demonstrate great potential to prevent cognitive impairment. Multiple components from herbal medicines may function through different signaling pathways to target the NVGU. Future studies using novel drug-carrier or delivery systems targeting the NVGU will certainly facilitate the development of phytopharmaceuticals for AD and VD.

Natural compounds: Wnt pathway inhibitors with therapeutic potential in lung cancer

The Wnt/β-catenin pathway is abnormally activated in most lung cancer tissues and considered to be an accelerator of carcinogenesis and lung cancer progression, which is closely related to increased morbidity rates, malignant progression, and treatment resistance. Although targeting the canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway shows significant potential for lung cancer therapy, it still faces challenges owing to its complexity, tumor heterogeneity and wide physiological activity. Therefore, it is necessary to elucidate the role of the abnormal activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway in lung cancer progression. Moreover, Wnt inhibitors used in lung cancer clinical trials are expected to break existing therapeutic patterns, although their adverse effects limit the treatment window. This is the first study to summarize the research progress on various compounds, including natural products and derivatives, that target the canonical Wnt pathway in lung cancer to develop safer and more targeted drugs or alternatives. Various natural products have been found to inhibit Wnt/β-catenin in various ways, such as through upstream and downstream intervention pathways, and have shown encouraging preclinical anti-tumor efficacy. Their diversity and low toxicity make them a popular research topic, laying the foundation for further combination therapies and drug development.

β-Asarone Alleviates High-Glucose-Induced Oxidative Damage via Inhibition of ROS Generation and Inactivation of the NF-κB/NLRP3 Inflammasome Pathway in Human Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the leading cause of vision loss and a major complication of diabetes. Hyperglycemia-induced accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is an important risk factor for DR. β-asarone, a major component of volatile oil extracted from Acori graminei Rhizoma, exerts antioxidant effects; however, its efficacy in DR remains unknown. In this study, we investigated whether β-asarone inhibits high-glucose (HG)-induced oxidative damage in human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) ARPE-19 cells. We found that β-asarone significantly alleviated cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and DNA damage in HG-treated ARPE-19 cells via scavenging of ROS generation. β-Asarone also significantly attenuated the excessive accumulation of lactate dehydrogenase and mitochondrial ROS by increasing the manganese superoxide dismutase and glutathione activities. HG conditions markedly increased the release of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18 and upregulated their protein expression and activation of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, whereas β-asarone reversed these effects. Moreover, expression levels of the NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome multiprotein complex molecules, including thioredoxin-interacting protein, NLRP3, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase-recruitment domain, and cysteinyl aspartate-specific proteinase-1, were increased in ARPE-19 cells under HG conditions. However, their expression levels remained similar to those in the control group in the presence of β-asarone. Therefore, β-asarone protects RPE cells from HG-induced injury by blocking ROS generation and NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome activation, indicating its potential as a therapeutic agent for DR treatment.

Acorus tatarinowii Schott: A Review of Its Botany, Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacology

Acorus tatarinowii Schott (A. tatarinowii) is a natural medicinal plant. It plays an indispensable role in the treatment of diseases by the empirical medicine system and has achieved remarkable curative effects. A. tatarinowii is often used to treat various diseases, such as depression, epilepsy, fever, dizziness, heartache, stomachache, etc. More than 160 compounds of different structural types have been identified in A. tatarinowii, including phenylpropanoids, terpenoids, lignans, flavonoids, alkaloids, amides, and organic acids. These bioactive ingredients make A. tatarinowii remarkable for its pharmacological effects, including antidepressant, antiepileptic, anticonvulsant, antianxiety, neuroprotective, antifatigue, and antifungal effects, improving Alzheimer's disease, and so on. It is noteworthy that A. tatarinowii has been widely used in the treatment of brain diseases and nervous system diseases and has achieved satisfactory therapeutic effects. This review focused on the research publications of A. tatarinowii and aimed to summarize the advances in the botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology, which will provide a reference for further studies and applications of A. tatarinowii.

Acorus calamus var. angustatus Besser: Insight into current research on ethnopharmacological use, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and pharmacokinetics

A. calamus var. angustatus Besser is an important traditional medicinal herb commonly used in China and other Asian countries. This study is the first systematic review of the literature to thoroughly analyze the ethnopharmacological application, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and pharmacokinetic properties of A. calamus var. angustatus Besser and provides a rationale for future research and prospects for application in clinical treatment. Information on relevant studies investigating A. calamus var. angustatus Besser was collected from SciFinder, the Web of Science, PubMed, CNKI, Elsevier, ResearchGate, ACS, Flora of China, and Baidu Scholar, etc. up to December 2022. In addition, information was also obtained from Pharmacopeias, books on Chinese herbal classics, local books, as well as PhD and MS dissertations. A. calamus var. angustatus Besser has played an important role in the herbal treatment of coma, convulsion, amnesia, and dementia for thousands of years. Studies investigating the chemical constituents of A. calamus var. angustatus Besser have isolated and identified 234 small-molecule compounds and a few polysaccharides. Among them, simple phenylpropanoids represented by asarone analogues and lignans are the two main active ingredients, which can be considered characteristic chemotaxonomic markers of this herb. In vitro and in vivo pharmacological studies indicated that crude extracts and active compounds from A. calamus var. angustatus Besser display a wide range of pharmacological activities, especially as treatment for Alzheimer's disease (AD), and anticonvulsant, antidepressant-like, anxiolytic-like, anti-fatigue, anti-Parkinson, neuroprotection, and brain protection properties, providing more evidence to explain the traditional medicinal uses and ethnopharmacology. The clinical therapeutic dose of A. calamus var. angustatus Besser does not present any toxic effects, but its main active ingredients α-asarone and β-asarone at excessive dose may lead to toxicity, and in particular, their respective epoxide metabolites may exert potential toxicity to the liver. This review provides a reference and further information for the future development and clinical application of A. calamus var. angustatus Besser.

β-asarone prolongs sleep via regulating the level of glutamate in the PVN

People of all ages could suffer from sleep disorders, which are increasingly recognized as common manifestations of neurologic disease. Acorus tatarinowii is a herb that has been used in traditional medicine to promote sleep. β-asarone, as the main component of volatile oil obtained from Acorus tatarinowii, may be the main contributor to the sleeping-promoting efficacy of Acorus tatarinowii. In the study, adult male C57BL/6 mice were administered β-asarone at 12.5 mg/kg, 25 mg/kg, and 50 mg/kg. Behavioral experiments showed that β-asarone at 25 mg/kg could significantly improve sleep duration. It was also observed that the proportion of NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep increased considerably after administration of β-asarone. In the PVN (paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus) region of the hypothalamus, it was observed that the glutamate content decreased after β-asarone treatment. At the same time, the expression of VGLUT2 (vesicular glutamate transporters 2) decreased while the expression of GAD65 (glutamic acid decarboxylase 65) and GABARAP (GABA Type A Receptor-Associated Protein) increased in the hypothalamus, suggesting that β-asarone may suppress arousal by reducing glutamate and promoting transformation of glutamate to the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid). This study is the first to focus on the association between β-asarone and sleep, shedding perspectives for pharmacological applications of β-asarone and providing a new direction for future research.

Integrated network pharmacology and experimental verification to explore the molecular mechanism of Jingxin Zhidong formula for treating Tic disorder

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

As a traditional Chinese medicine formula, Jingxin Zhidong Formula (JXZDF) based on ancient amber powder has been prescribed to alleviate tic disorders (TD) according to our clinical practice for many years. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain largely unknown.

AIM OF STUDY

To explore the potential mechanism of JXZDF in the treatment of TD by using network pharmacology and experimental validation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The chemical components of JXZDF were detected and the potential pathway enrichment analyses were conducted based on network pharmacology. Finally, we performed cell viability assays and Western blotting on LPS-induced BV-2 cells, and subsequently performed behavioral tests and Western blotting in SD rats model for TD to explore the mechanism of JXZDF on TD.

RESULTS

By LC-ESI-MS/MS system and searching the databases, we identified 5 key compounds and 29 hub targets of JXZDF on TD. KEGG enrichment analysis showed that PI3K/AKT signaling pathway may be the key pathway for JXZDF on TD. The vitro experimental results proved that JXZDF can inhibit the phosphorylation of PI3K and AKT proteins on LPS-induced BV-2 cells. The animal experimental results indicated that JXZDF can effectively alleviate the stereotypic behavior and hyperactivity of the TD rats, and downregulated PI3K/AKT pathway to inhibit microglia activation in the hippocampus tissue.

CONCLUSION

This study indicated that JXZDF can change microglial activation and expression of proinflammatory mediators through the inactivation of PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, which may be one of the mechanisms of JXZDF in treating TD.

Essential oil of Acorus tatarinowii Schott inhibits neuroinflammation by suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation in 3 × Tg-AD transgenic mice

BACKGROUND

Shi chang pu (Acorus tatarinowii Schott) is a herbal used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in China. The essential oil of Shi chang pu (SCP-oil) is the main active component. However, its effects on the neuroinflammation of AD have not been well studied.

PURPOSE

Neuroinflammation mediated by the NLRP3 inflammasome plays a crucial role in AD. This study was designed to evaluate the effect of SCP-oil on cognitive impairment of App_Swe/PSEN1_M146V/MAPT_P301L triple transgenic (3 × Tg-AD) mice model and investigate the mechanism underlying its anti-inflammation effects.

METHODS

Thirty-two 3 × Tg-AD mice at 12 months and 8 wild-type B6 mice were used for this experiment. The 3 × Tg-AD mice were administered with SCP-oil or donepezil hydrochloride for 8 weeks. Morris water maze test and step-down test were used to evaluate the cognitive ability of mice. The pathological changes, neuroinflammation, and the NLRP3 inflammasome related-protein of AD mice were detected by histomorphological examination, TUNEL staining, immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR, Elisa, and western blot assays.

RESULTS

SCP-oil treatment attenuated cognitive dysfunction of 3 × Tg-AD mice. Moreover, SCP-oil also ameliorated characteristics pathological of AD, such as pathological changes damage, deposition of Aβ, phosphorylation of Tau, and neuronal loss. Additionally, SCP-oil treatment alleviated the neuroinflammation and inhibited phosphorylation of IKKβ, NF-κB, and NLRP3 inflammasome related-protein NLRP3, ASC, Caspase-1, cleaved-Caspase-1, and GSDMD-N in the hippocampus of 3 × Tg-AD mice.

CONCLUSION

Overall, SCP-oil contributed to neuroprotection in 3 × Tg-AD mice by reduced activation of NLRP3 inflammasome by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway.

Acori Tatarinowii Rhizoma: A comprehensive review of its chemical composition, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicity

Acori Tatarinowii Rhizoma (ATR, Shi Chang Pu in Chinese), a natural product with multiple targets in various diseases. This review provides the comprehensive summary of the chemical composition, pharmacological effects, pharmacokinetics parameters and toxicity of ATR. The results indicated that ATR possesses a wide spectrum of chemical composition, including volatile oil, terpenoids, organic acids, flavonoids, amino acids, lignin, carbohydrates and so on. Accumulating evidence from various studies has shown that ATR exerts a wide range of pharmacological properties, including protecting nerve cells, alleviating learning and memory impairment, anti-ischemic, anti-myocardial ischemia, anti-arrhythmic, anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, and anti-oxidant activities. Currently, ATR is widely used in the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal digestive system, respiratory system in China, and for the treatment of epilepsy, depression, amnesia, consciousness, anxiety, insomnia, aphasia, tinnitus, cancers, dementia, stroke, skin diseases, and other complex diseases. Pharmacokinetic studies indicated that β-asarone, α-asarone, cis-methylisoeugenol, and asarylaldehyde, the active components of ATR, were absorbed slowly after oral administration of ATR. Moreover, toxicity studies have suggested that ATR has no carcinogenic, teratogenic and mutagenic toxicity. Nevertheless, long term or high-dose toxicity testing in animals to explore the acute and chronic toxicity of acori Tatarinowii Rhizoma is still lacking. In view of good pharmacological activities, ATR is expected to be a potential drug candidate for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, depression, or ulcerative colitis. However, further studies are needed to elucidate its chemical composition, pharmacological effects, molecular mechanisms and targets, improve its oral bioavailability, and clarify its potential toxicity.

Configurational Alteration Results in Change in Hepatotoxicity of Asarone

α-Asarone (αA) and β-asarone (βA) are often used as flavoring agents for alcoholic beverages and food supplements. They possess a double bond in the side chain with different configurations. Double bonds are a class of alert chemical group, due to their metabolic epoxidation to the corresponding epoxides eliciting liver injury. Little is known about changes of configuration on metabolic activation and related toxicity. Here, we report the insight into the mechanisms of hepatotoxicity of asarone with different configurations. In vitro and in vivo comparative studies demonstrated βA displayed higher metabolic activation effectiveness. Apparently, the major metabolic pathway of βA underwent epoxidation at C-1' and C-2', while αA was mainly metabolized to the corresponding alcohol resulting from the hydroxylation of C-3'. CYP1A2 dominated the metabolism of αA and βA. The molecular simulation studies showed that the orientation of βA at the active site of CYP1A2 favored the epoxidation of βA over that of αA. These findings not only remind us that configuration is another important factor for toxicities but also facilitate the understanding of the mechanisms of toxic action of asarone. Additionally, these findings would benefit the risk assessment of αA and βA exposure from foods.

α-Asarone alleviates allergic asthma by stabilizing mast cells through inhibition of ERK/JAK2-STAT3 pathway

Asthma is a heterogeneous disease related to numerous inflammatory cells, among which mast cells play an important role in the early stages of asthma. Therefore, treatment of asthma targeting mast cells is of great research value. α-Asarone is an important anti-inflammatory component of the traditional Chinese medicine Acorus calamus L, which has a variety of medicinal values. To investigate whether α-asarone can alleviate asthma symptoms and its mechanism. In this study, we investigated the effect of α-asarone on mast cell activation in vivo and in vitro. The release of chemokines or cytokines, AHR (airway hyperresponsiveness), and mast cell activation were examined in a mast cell-dependent asthma model. Western blot was performed to determine the underlying pathway. α-Asarone inhibited the degranulation of LAD2 (laboratory allergic disease 2) cells and decreased IL-8, MCP-1, histamine, and TNF-α in vitro. α-Asarone reduced paw swelling and leakage of Evans blue, as well as serum histamine, CCL2, and TNF-α in vivo. In the asthma model, α-asarone showed an inhibitory effect on AHR, inflammation, mast cells activation, infiltration of inflammatory cells, and the release of IL-5 and IL-13 in lung tissue. α-Asarone decreased the levels of phosphorylated JAK2, phosphorylated ERK, and phosphorylated STAT3 induced by C48/80. Our findings suggest that α-asarone alleviates allergic asthma by inhibiting mast cell activation through the ERK/JAK2-STAT3 pathway.

Advances in extraction methods, chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, molecular targets and toxicology of volatile oil from Acorus calamus var. angustatus Besser

Acorus calamus var. angustatus Besser (ATT) is a traditional herb with a long medicinal history. The volatile oil of ATT (VOA) does possess many pharmacological activities. It can restore the vitality of the brain, nervous system and myocardial cells. It is used to treat various central system, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. It also showed antibacterial and antioxidant activity. Many studies have explored the benefits of VOA scientifically. This paper reviews the extraction methods, chemical components, pharmacological activities and toxicology of VOA. The molecular mechanism of VOA was elucidated. This paper will serve as a comprehensive resource for further carrying the VOA on improving its medicinal value and clinical use.

Alpha-asarone ameliorates neurological deterioration of intracerebral hemorrhagic rats by alleviating secondary brain injury via anti-excitotoxicity pathways

BACKGROUND

Secondary brain injury (SBI) has been confirmed as a leading cause for the poor prognosis of patients suffering from intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). SBI co-exists in ischemia and hemorrhagic stroke. Neuro-excitotoxicity is considered the initiating factor of ICH-induced SBI. Our previous research has revealed alpha-asarone (ASA)'s efficacy against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion stroke by mitigating neuro-excitotoxicity. It is not yet known if ASA exhibit neuroprotection against ICH.

PURPOSE

This work aimed to investigate ASA's therapeutic effects and potential mechanisms of action against ICH in a classic rat model induced by collagenase Ⅶ injection.

METHODS

An in vivo ICH model of Sprague-Dawley rats was established by collagenase Ⅶ injection. We administrated different ASA doses (10, 20, or 40 mg/kg, i.p.) at 2 h post-ICH. Then, rats' short- and long-term neurobehavioral function, bodyweight change, and learning and memory ability were blindly evaluated. Histological, Nissl, and flow cytometry were applied to assess the neuronal damage post-ICH. The wet/dry method and Evans blue extravasation estimated brain edema and blood-brain barrier function. Pathway-related proteins were investigated by immunofluorescence staining, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and Western-blot analysis.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that ASA ameliorated neurological deterioration, bodyweight loss, and learning and memory ability of ICH rats. Histological, Nissl, and flow cytometry analyses showed that ASA reduced neuronal damage and apoptosis post-ICH. Besides, ASA probably mitigated brain edema and blood-brain barrier dysfunction via inhibiting astrocyte activation and consequent pro-inflammatory response. The mechanism investigation attributed ASA's efficacy to the following aspects: 1) promoting sodium ion excretion, thus blocking excitatory signal transduction along the axon; 2) preventing glutamate-involved pathways, i.e., decrease of N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptor subunit 2B, increase of glutamate transporter-1, and alleviation of calcium-related cascades, mitochondrion-associated apoptosis, and neuronal autophagy; 3) enhancing the expression of GABA_ARs, thus abating neuronal excitotoxicity.

CONCLUSION

Our study first confirmed the effect of ASA on ameliorating the neurobehavioral deterioration of ICH rats, possibly via alleviation of glutamate-involved neuro-excitotoxicity, i.e., calcium cascades, mitochondrion-involved apoptosis, neuronal autophagy, and astrocyte-related inflammation. These findings not only provided a promising drug candidate for clinical treatment of ICH but also shed light on the future drug discovery against ICH.

β-Asarone suppresses TGF-β/Smad signaling to reduce the invasive properties in esophageal squamous cancer cells

Esophageal cancer is one of the most common malignancies which induces cancer-related death. Cancer metastasis and recurrence are the main obstacle faced in esophageal cancer treatment. β-Asarone has been shown to act as an anti-cancer reagent in various cancer types. However, the anti-cancer activities of β-Asarone in esophageal cancer have not been shown. In the current study, we show that β-Asarone suppressed the proliferation of esophageal squamous cancer cells (ESCC) in both dose- and time-dependent manners. Moreover, β-Asarone treatment increases activated caspase 3, caspase 9, and cleaved poly ADP-ribose polymerase, and induces apoptosis in ESCC. Additionally, β-Asarone also suppresses epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and the invasive and migratory abilities in ESCC. Interestingly, β-Asarone suppresses TGF-β/Smad signaling by inhibition of TGF-β-induced phosphorylation of Smad2 and Smad3. Importantly, we show that inhibition of TGF-β/Smad signaling activation is critical for β-Asarone-suppressed EMT. Our data revealed a novel role of β-Asarone which targets invasive properties by inhibiting TGF-β/Smad signaling activation in ESCC. Our study suggests the potential application of β-Asarone to reduce cancer metastasis and recurrence in esophageal cancer treatment.

One-step fabrication of COF-coated melamine sponge for in-syringe solid-phase extraction of active ingredients from traditional Chinese medicine in serum samples

In this study, a covalent organic framework (COF)-TpBD-supported melamine sponge (MS) was fabricated through a one-step hydrothermal method. The obtained monolithic column was then applied in in-syringe solid-phase extraction (IS-SPE) for the separation of three volatile ingredients from serum samples. Given credit for the superior adsorption capacity of the COF and the homogeneous microporous property of MS, the developed column exhibited satisfactory separation of the targets. And the dominating adsorption mechanism was the hydrophobic interaction forces between TpBD and targets and the high mass transfer efficiency provided by the large pore structure of MS. The results of dynamic adsorption showed that the MS@TpBD column displayed much better adsorption performance than blank MS and TpBD. And it has featured great reusability up to 5 cycles and obtained satisfied recovery values (87.9 ~ 110.3%) in serum samples. As a result of sample clean-up, this column offers low limit of detections (LODs) down to 0.014, 0.010, and 0.020 μg/mL, respectively. In summary, we believe that this convenient separation column has prominent application promise in the fields of separating activity ingredients in biological samples.

Comprehensive Phytochemical Profiling, Biological Activities, and Molecular Docking Studies of Pleurospermum candollei: An Insight into Potential for Natural Products Development

The purpose of this study was to find the biological propensities of the vegetable plant Pleurospermum candollei by investigating its phytochemical profile and biological activities. Phytochemical analysis was done by spectroscopic methods to investigate the amount of total polyphenols, and biological evaluation was done by the different antioxidant, enzyme inhibitory (tyrosinase, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase), thrombolytic, and antibacterial activities. The highest amount of total phenolic and flavonoid contents was observed in methanolic extract (240.69 ± 2.94 mg GAE/g and 167.59 ± 3.47 mg QE/g); the fractions showed comparatively less quantity (57.02 ± 1.31 to 144.02 ± 2.11 mg GAE/g, and 48.21 ± 0.75 to 96.58 ± 2.30 mg QE/g). The effect of these bioactive contents was also related to biological activities. GCMS analysis led to the identification of bioactive compounds with different biological effects from methanolic extract (antioxidant; 55.07%, antimicrobial; 56.41%), while the identified compounds from the n-hexane fraction with antioxidant properties constituted 67.86%, and those with antimicrobial effects constituted 82.95%; however, the synergetic effect of polyphenols may also have contributed to the highest value of biological activities of methanolic extract. Molecular docking was also performed to understand the relationship of identified secondary metabolites with enzyme-inhibitory activities. The thrombolytic activity was also significant (40.18 ± 1.80 to 57.15 ± 1.10 % clot lysis) in comparison with streptokinase (78.5 ± 1.53 to 82.34 ± 1.25% clot lysis). Methanolic extract also showed good activity against Gram-positive strains of bacteria, and the highest activity was observed against Bacillus subtilis. The findings of this study will improve our knowledge of phytochemistry, and biological activities of P. candollei, which seems to be a ray of hope to design formulations of natural products for the improvement of health and prevention of chronic diseases; however, further research may address the development of novel drugs for use in pharmaceuticals.

Synthesis, crystal structure and bioactivities of α-asaronol

α-Asaronol [or (E)-3′-hydroxyasarone; systematic name: (E)-3-(2,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)prop-2-en-1-ol; C12H16O4] was synthesized towards the development of a potential antiepileptic drug. Following purification by recrystallization, single crystals of α-asaronol were obtained by a liquid interface diffusion method at room temperature. The product was characterized by 1H and 13C NMR, and FT–IR spectroscopic analysis. X-ray crystallography revealed the title crystal to belong to the orthorhombic space group P212121. Preliminary bioassays with mouse neuroblastoma N2a cells demonstrated the neuroprotective activities of the synthesized α-asaronol.

α-Asarone Attenuates Osteoclastogenesis and Prevents Against Oestrogen-Deficiency Induced Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis (OP) is defined as low bone mineral density which features over activated osteoclasts (OCs) and bone resorption. Targeting excessive OCs activity is thought to be an effective therapeutic approach for OP treatment. α-asarone (ASA), a compound from the traditional Chinese medicinal herb Acorus tatarinowii, has been widely used as a therapeutic agent against several diseases such as epilepsy, cough, bronchitis and asthma for many years. Recently, it was reported that ASA-derived lignins which were purified from Acorus tatarinowii root tissues effectively suppressed both RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption. Besides, a classic Chinese formulation Bajitianwan (BJTW) which consisted of root and rhizome of Acorus tatarinowii Schott also showed positive effects on age-related bone loss. In the present study, we aimed to study the effects of ASA on osteoclastogenesis in vitro and in vivo. As illustrated by TRAP staining, ASA was capable of inhibiting RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis in a dose-dependent manner, not only at an early-stage, but also in the late-stage. Besides, it also effectively suppressed bone resorption of mature OCs in a pit resorption assay. The formation of F-actin ring during osteoclastogenesis, which was important in OCs bone-resorption, was impaired as well. Subsequent mechanism experiments exposed that ASA inhibited osteoclastogenesis related genes in a time-dependent manner through AKT, p38 and NF-κB, followed by NFATc1/c-fos signaling pathway. Notably, our in vivo study uncovered that ASA was capable of improving the bone microstructure in oestrogen-deficiency induced OP models. Thus, our current work highlighted the important role of an old drug ASA in bone metabolism especially in OCs differentiation. ASA may find its potential as a lead compound to treat excessive OCs activity-induced bone loss diseases and more structure optimization is further needed.

Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potential of α- and β-Asarone in the Treatment of Neurological Disorders

Neurological disorders are important causes of morbidity and mortality around the world. The increasing prevalence of neurological disorders, associated with an aging population, has intensified the societal burden associated with these diseases, for which no effective treatment strategies currently exist. Therefore, the identification and development of novel therapeutic approaches, able to halt or reverse neuronal loss by targeting the underlying causal factors that lead to neurodegeneration and neuronal cell death, are urgently necessary. Plants and other natural products have been explored as sources of safe, naturally occurring secondary metabolites with potential neuroprotective properties. The secondary metabolites α- and β-asarone can be found in high levels in the rhizomes of the medicinal plant Acorus calamus (L.). α- and β-asarone exhibit multiple pharmacological properties including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic, anticancer, and neuroprotective effects. This paper aims to provide an overview of the current research on the therapeutic potential of α- and β-asarone in the treatment of neurological disorders, particularly neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), as well as cerebral ischemic disease, and epilepsy. Current research indicates that α- and β-asarone exert neuroprotective effects by mitigating oxidative stress, abnormal protein accumulation, neuroinflammation, neurotrophic factor deficit, and promoting neuronal cell survival, as well as activating various neuroprotective signalling pathways. Although the beneficial effects exerted by α- and β-asarone have been demonstrated through in vitro and in vivo animal studies, additional research is required to translate laboratory results into safe and effective therapies for patients with AD, PD, and other neurological and neurodegenerative diseases.

Neuroprotective Effect of Alpha-asarone on the Rats Model of Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Stroke via Ameliorating Glial Activation and Autophagy

Alpha-asarone, a major active component isolated from Acorus gramineus, can affect brain functions and behaviors by multiple mechanisms. However, the effect of alpha-asarone on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (CIR) stroke has not been reported. The present study aimed to investigate the neuroprotective effect of alpha-asarone and the involved mechanisms against CIR stroke. Rats were subjected to middle cerebral occlusion (MCAO) for 2 h. Then the drug or drug-free vehicle was intravenously injected to corresponding groups. After reperfusion for 24 h, the infarct volume was evaluated by Triphenyl Tetrazolium Chloride (TTC) staining. The neurofunctional recovery and post-stroke epilepsy were evaluated. Nissl and Hematoxylin-Eosin (H&E) staining were used for histological observation. We investigated the protective mechanism of alpha-asarone against the stroke. The results showed that alpha-asarone exhibited a desirable neuroprotective effect, manifested as reducing infarct volume and post-stroke epilepsy and improving neurological function. Histological and flow cytometry analysis revealed that alpha-asarone treatment alleviated cell injury and apoptosis in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, alpha-asarone decreased GFAP, Iba-1, and LC3II/LC3I expression and increased the expression of p62. These results suggested that alpha-asarone attenuated the CIR stroke injury via ameliorating glial activation and autophagy.

Biotransformation of α-asarone by Alternaria longipes CGMCC 3.2875

Biotransformation of α-asarone by Alternaria longipes CGMCC 3.2875 yielded two pairs of new neolignans, (+) (7S, 8S, 7'S, 8'R) iso-magnosalicin (1a)/(-) (7R, 8R, 7'R, 8'S) iso-magnosalicin (1b) and (+) (7R, 8R, 7'S, 8'R) magnosalicin (2a)/(-) (7S, 8S, 7'R, 8'S) magnosalicin (2b), and four known metabolites, (±) acoraminol A (3), (±) acoraminol B (4), asaraldehyde (5), and 2, 4, 5-trimethoxybenzoic acid (6). Their structures, including absolute configurations, were determined by extensive analysis of NMR spectra, X-ray crystallography, and quantum chemical ECD calculations. The cytotoxic activity and Aβ₄₂ aggregation inhibitory activity of all the compounds were evaluated. Compound 2 displayed significant anti-Aβ₄₂ aggregation activity with an inhibitory rate of 60.81% (the positive control EGCG: 69.17%). In addition, the biotransformation pathway of α-asarone by Alternaria longipes CGMCC 3.2875 was proposed.

Phytotherapeutics Against Alzheimer's Disease: Mechanism, Molecular Targets and Challenges for Drug Development

Alzheimer's disease is inflating worldwide and is combatted by only a few approved drugs. At best, these drugs treat symptomatic conditions by targeting cholinesterase and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Most of the clinical trials in progress are focused to develop disease-modifying agents that aim single targets. The 'one drug-one target' approach is failing in the case of Alzheimer's disease due to its labyrinth etiopathogenesis. Traditional medicinal systems like ayurveda uses a holistic approach encompassing legion of medicinal plants exhibiting multimodal activity. Recent advances in high-throughput technologies have catapulted the research in the arena of ayurveda, specifically in identifying plants with potent anti-Alzheimer's disease properties and their phytochemical characterization. Nonetheless, clinical trials of very few herbal medicines are in progress. This review is a compendium of Indian plants and ayurvedic medicines against Alzheimer's disease and their paraphernalia. A record of 230 plants that are found in India with anti-Alzheimer's disease potential and about 500 phytochemicals from medicinal plants has been solicited with the hope of exploring the unexplored. Further, the molecular targets of phytochemicals isolated from commonly used medicinal plants such as Acorus calamus, Bacopa monnieri, Convolvulus pluricaulis, Tinospora cordifolia and Withania somnifera have been reviewed with respect to their multidimensional property such as antioxidant, anti-inflammation, anti-aggregation, synaptic plasticity modulation, cognition and memory enhancing activity. In addition, the strengths, and challenges in ayurvedic medicine that limit its use as mainstream therapy is discussed and a framework for the development of herbal medicine has been proposed.

Phase II Metabolism of Asarone Isomers In Vitro and in Humans Using HPLC-MS/MS and HPLC-qToF/MS

(1) Background: Metabolism data of asarone isomers, in particular phase II, in vitro and in humans is limited so far. For the first time, phase II metabolites of asarone isomers were characterized and human kinetic as well as excretion data after oral intake of asarone-containing tea infusion was determined. (2) Methods: A high pressure liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-qTOF-MS) approach was used to identify phase II metabolites using liver microsomes of different species and in human urine samples. For quantitation of the respective glucuronides, a beta-glucuronidase treatment was performed prior to analysis via high pressure liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). (3) Results: Ingested beta-asarone and erythro and threo-asarone diols were excreted as diols and respective diol glucuronide conjugates within 24 h. An excretion rate about 42% was estimated. O-Demethylation of beta-asarone was also indicated as a human metabolic pathway because a corresponding glucuronic acid conjugate was suggested. (4) Conclusions: Already reported O-demethylation and epoxide-derived diols formation in phase I metabolism of beta-asarone in vitro was verified in humans and glucuronidation was characterized as main conjugation reaction. The excretion rate of 42% as erythro and threo-asarone diols and respective asarone diol glucuronides suggests that epoxide formation is a key step in beta-asarone metabolism, but further, as yet unknown metabolites should also be taken into consideration.

Uncovering the Protective Mechanism of the Volatile Oil of Acorus tatarinowii against Acute Myocardial Ischemia Injury Using Network Pharmacology and Experimental Validation

Acorus tatarinowii is a traditional aromatic resuscitation drug that can be clinically used to prevent cardiovascular diseases. The volatile oil of Acorus tatarinowii (VOA) possesses important medicinal properties, including protection against acute myocardial ischemia (MI) injury. However, the pharmacodynamic material basis and molecular mechanisms underlying this protective effect remain unclear. Using network pharmacology and animal experiments, we studied the mechanisms and pathways implicated in the activity of VOA against acute MI injury. First, VOA was extracted from three batches of Acorus tatarinowii using steam distillation, and then, its chemical composition was determined by GC-MS. Next, the components-targets and protein-protein interaction networks were constructed using systematic network pharmacology. Gene Ontology (GO) function and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were also conducted in order to predict the possible pharmacodynamic mechanisms. Furthermore, animal experiments including ELISAs, histological examinations, and Western blots were performed in order to validate the pharmacological effects of VOA. In total, 33 chemical components were identified in VOA, and ß-asarone was found to be the most abundant component. Based on network pharmacology analysis, the therapeutic effects of VOA against myocardial ischemia might be mediated by signaling pathways involving COX-2, PPAR-α, VEGF, and cAMP. Overall, the obtained results indicate that VOA alleviates the pathological manifestations of isoproterenol-hydrochloride-induced myocardial ischemia in rats, including the decreased SOD (superoxide dismutase) content and increased LDH (lactic dehydrogenase) content. Moreover, the anti-MI effect of VOA might be attributed to the downregulation of the COX-2 protein that inhibits apoptosis, the upregulation of the PPAR-α protein that regulates energy metabolism, and the activation of VEGF and cAMP signaling pathways.

Autophagy in vascular dementia and natural products with autophagy regulating activity

Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion(CCH)-induced vascular dementia(VD) is a common neurodegenerative disease which seriously affects the patient's quality of life. Therefore, it is critical to find an effective treatment of VD. Autophagy is a natural regulated mechanism that can remove dysfunctional proteins and organelles, however, over-activation or under-activation can of autophagy can induce the apoptosis of cells. Although autophagy plays a role in the central nervous system is unquestionable, the effects of autophagy in the ischemic brain are still controversial. Some autophagy regulators have been tested, suggesting that both activation and inhibition of autophagy can improve the cognitive function. This article reviews the role of autophagy in CCH-induced VD to discuss whether autophagy has the potential to become a target for drug development and provides several potential compounds for treating vascular dementia.

An Insight in Pathophysiological Mechanism of Alzheimer's Disease and its Management Using Plant Natural Products

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-associated nervous system disorder and a leading cause of dementia worldwide. Clinically, it is described by cognitive impairment and pathophysiologically by deposition of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain and neurodegeneration. This article reviews the pathophysiology, course of neuronal degeneration, and the various possible hypothesis of AD progression. These hypotheses include amyloid cascade, tau hyperphosphorylation, cholinergic disruption, metal dysregulation, vascular dysfunction, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation. There is an exponential increase in the occurrence of AD in the recent few years that indicate an urgent need to develop some effective treatment. Currently, only 2 classes of drugs are available for AD treatment, namely acetylcholinesterase inhibitor and NMDA receptor antagonist. Since AD is a complex neurological disorder and these drugs use a single target approach, alternatives are needed due to limited effectiveness and unpleasant side-effects of these drugs. Currently, plants have been used for drug development research especially because of their multiple sites of action and fewer side effects. Uses of some herbs and phytoconstituents for the management of neuronal disorders like AD have been documented in this article. Phytochemical screening of these plants shows the presence of many beneficial constituents like flavonoids, triterpenes, alkaloids, sterols, polyphenols, and tannins. These compounds show a wide array of pharmacological activities, such as anti-amyloidogenic, anticholinesterase, and antioxidants. This article summarizes the present understanding of AD progression and gathers biochemical evidence from various works on natural products that can be useful in the management of this disease.

The Role of Essential Oils and Their Main Compounds in the Management of Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a global health burden that greatly impact patient quality of life and account for a huge number of deaths worldwide. Despite current therapies, several side effects have been reported that compromise patient adherence; thus, affecting therapeutic benefits. In this context, plant metabolites, namely volatile extracts and compounds, have emerged as promising therapeutic agents. Indeed, these compounds, in addition to having beneficial bioactivities, are generally more amenable and present less side effects, allowing better patient tolerance. The present review is an updated compilation of the studies carried out in the last 20 years on the beneficial potential of essential oils, and their compounds, against major risk factors of CVDs. Overall, these metabolites show beneficial potential through a direct effect on these risk factors, namely hypertension, dyslipidemia and diabetes, or by acting on related targets, or exerting general cellular protection. In general, monoterpenic compounds are the most studied regarding hypotensive and anti-dyslipidemic/antidiabetic properties, whereas phenylpropanoids are very effective at avoiding platelet aggregation. Despite the number of studies performed, clinical trials are sparse and several aspects related to essential oil’s features, namely volatility and chemical variability, need to be considered in order to guarantee their efficacy in a clinical setting.

Effects of β-Asarone on Ischemic Stroke in Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion Rats by an Nrf2-Antioxidant Response Elements (ARE) Pathway-Dependent Mechanism

Background

This study assessed the effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of β-asarone on ischemic stroke model rats.

Material/Methods

Ischemic stroke was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in rats. Before and after modeling, cognitive function was evaluated via fear conditioning test and neurological deficit was determined via Longa and Bederson scores. Following treatment with β-asarone or nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) inhibitor for 20 consecutive days, the cerebral infarction was detected via TTC staining and Cresyl Violet staining in brain tissues. TUNEL staining and western blot analysis for apoptosis-related proteins were performed to assess the apoptosis of neurons. Nrf2-antioxidant response elements (ARE) pathway-related proteins were examined by RT-qPCR or western blot.

Results

The cognitive and neurological function was defective in MCAO rats. The infarction volumes and the apoptosis of cortical neurons were significantly increased in brain tissues of model rats, which were ameliorated after treatment with β-asarone. Meanwhile, the increase in pro-apoptotic proteins and decrease in anti-apoptotic proteins were found in brain tissues of model rats, which were markedly ameliorated by β-asarone treatment. However, Nrf2 inhibitor worsened the cerebral infarction and the apoptosis of neurons. Western blot results showed that β-asarone treatment activated the Nrf2-ARE pathway-related proteins in model rats, which was inhibited by Nrf2 inhibitor.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that β-asarone treatment ameliorated the cerebral infarction in MCAO rats, which could be related to activation of the Nrf2-ARE pathway.

In Vitro and In Vivo Survey of Ethyl Acetate Extract of Acorus calamus (Sweet Flag) Rhizome on Toxoplasma gondii

Background

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonosis disease that can cause a variety range of manifestations in human specially fetus duration and immunodeficiency conditions. Due to toxicity and side effects of current treatment, we evaluated in vivo and in vitro effects of ethyl acetate extract of Acorus calamus rhizomes (rootstocks) on Toxoplasma gondii.

Methods

The plant, Acorus calamus, was collected from Sari, North of Iran in spring season. Ethyl acetate extract was provided from plant rhizomes using Soxhlet apparatus. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents of the extract were measured by the Folin-Ciocalteu method. The mortality effect of different concentrations (1-256 μg/ml) of the extract on Toxoplasma tachyzoites was assessed by flowcytometry and propidium iodide staining. For the therapeutic effect assessment, the tachyzoites were inoculated intraperitoneally to mice, and then these mice were orally and intraperitoneally administered different concentrations (32, 64, 128, and 256 mg/kg) of the extract. Also, an infected group received PBS including DMSO 1% as negative control, and an infected group administered sulfadiazine as positive control. For toxicity evaluation of this extract, a group only received dose 256 mg/kg.

Results

The plant extract was rich of phenolic compounds (41.27 ± 0.21 mg/g), whereas it contained fewer amounts of flavonoids (4.79 ± 0.01 mg/g). Results of in vitro experiments showed that there is an inverse relationship between the concentrations and the mortality of the parasites (IC₅₀ = 200.01 ± 7.74 μg/ml). The highest percentage (62%) of dead tachyzoites was seen at maximum concentration of the extract. A significant longevity (8.9 days) was belonged to mice orally administered extract dose (256 mg/kg/day).

Conclusion

The ethyl acetate extract of A. calamus rhizomes had significant anti-Toxoplasma activities either in vitro or in vivo. It may be connected to high amount of phenolic compounds. We suggest that the effects of different fractions and the admin types of the extract will be evaluated on the parasite.

β-asarone suppresses HCT116 colon cancer cell proliferation and liver metastasis in part by activating the innate immune system

Studies have revealed that β-asarone exerts a powerful inhibitory effect on the proliferation of human cancer cells. The authors' previous study demonstrated that β-asarone could induce LoVo colon cancer cell apoptosis in vitro and in vivo, indicating its anticancer properties. The present study aimed to determine the antineoplastic effect of β-asarone in HCT116 colon cancer cells. An in vitro proliferation assay using a real time cell analyzer demonstrated that β-asarone effectively decreased HCT116 cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that differentially expressed genes following β-asarone inhibition were involved in the ‘cell cycle’, ‘cell division’, ‘cell proliferation’ and ‘apoptosis’. Subsequently, a xenograft assay evidenced the inhibitory effect of β-asarone on the growth of HCT116 tumors in vivo. Further detection of immune-associated cytokines and cells suggested that β-asarone might be involved in the antitumor immune response by stimulating granulocyte-colony stimulating factor and increasing the number of macrophage cells in the spleen. Additionally, a murine model of splenic-transplantation verified the strong suppressive role of β-asarone in colon cancer liver metastasis in vivo. Taken together, the results of the current study revealed that β-asarone decreased HCT116 colon cancer cell proliferation and liver metastasis potentially by activating the innate immune system, supporting the multi-system regulation theory and providing a basis for further mechanistic studies on colon cancer.

Metformin and asarone inhibit HepG2 cell proliferation in a high glucose environment by regulating AMPK and Akt signaling pathway

Background

Metabolic dysregulation is one of the hallmarks of tumor cell proliferation. Evidence indicates the potential role of the 5′adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and protein kinase B/Akt signaling pathway in regulating cell proliferation, survival, and apoptosis. The present study explores the effect of metformin HCl and the combination of α- and β-asarone on the proliferation of HepG2 cells in the presence of high glucose levels simulating the diabetic-hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) condition.

Results

The metformin and asarone reduced HepG2 cell viability in a dose-dependent manner and induced morphological changes as indicated by methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay. The metformin and asarone arrested the cells at the G0/G1 phase, upregulated the expression of AMPK, and downregulated Akt expression in high glucose conditions as identified by the flow cytometry technique. Further, the upregulated AMPK led to a decrease in the expression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase-2 (PCK-2) and sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1).

Conclusion

The anti-proliferative effect of metformin and asarone in the diabetic-HCC condition is mediated via AMPK and Akt pathway.

Potential Herb-Drug Interactions in the Management of Age-Related Cognitive Dysfunction

Late-life mild cognitive impairment and dementia represent a significant burden on healthcare systems and a unique challenge to medicine due to the currently limited treatment options. Plant phytochemicals have been considered in alternative, or complementary, prevention and treatment strategies. Herbals are consumed as such, or as food supplements, whose consumption has recently increased. However, these products are not exempt from adverse effects and pharmacological interactions, presenting a special risk in aged, polymedicated individuals. Understanding pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions is warranted to avoid undesirable adverse drug reactions, which may result in unwanted side-effects or therapeutic failure. The present study reviews the potential interactions between selected bioactive compounds (170) used by seniors for cognitive enhancement and representative drugs of 10 pharmacotherapeutic classes commonly prescribed to the middle-aged adults, often multimorbid and polymedicated, to anticipate and prevent risks arising from their co-administration. A literature review was conducted to identify mutual targets affected (inhibition/induction/substrate), the frequency of which was taken as a measure of potential interaction. Although a limited number of drugs were studied, from this work, interaction with other drugs affecting the same targets may be anticipated and prevented, constituting a valuable tool for healthcare professionals in clinical practice.

α-Asarone, β-asarone, and γ-asarone: Current status of toxicological evaluation

Asarone isomers are naturally occurring in Acorus calamus Linné, Guatteria gaumeri Greenman, and Aniba hostmanniana Nees. These secondary plant metabolites belong to the class of phenylpropenes (phenylpropanoids or alkenylbenzenes). They are further chemically classified into the propenylic trans- and cis-isomers α-asarone and β-asarone and the allylic γ-asarone. Flavoring, as well as potentially pharmacologically useful properties, enables the application of asarone isomers in fragrances, food, and traditional phytomedicine not only since their isolation in the 1950s. However, efficacy and safety in humans are still not known. Preclinical evidence has not been systematically studied, and several pharmacological effects have been reported for extracts of Acorus calamus and propenylic asarone isomers. Toxicological data are rare and not critically evaluated altogether in the 21st century yet. Therefore, within this review, available toxicological data of asarone isomers were assessed in detail. This assessment revealed that cardiotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, and mutagenicity as well as carcinogenicity were described for propenylic asarone isomers with varying levels of reliability. The toxicodynamic profile of γ-asarone is unknown except for mutagenicity. Based on the estimated daily exposure and reported adverse effects, officials restricted or published recommendations for the use of β-asarone and preparations of Acorus calamus. In contrast, α-asarone and γ-asarone were not directly addressed due to a limited data situation.