Phytochemical control of poultry coccidiosis: a review

Traditional Chinese medicine formulation ChangQing compound has significant therapeutic effects on chickens infected with Eimeria tenella

Coccidiosis poses a significant challenge to the poultry industry. However, the excessive and improper use of anticoccidial drugs and vaccines has led to resistance and food safety concerns. Consequently, traditional Chinese herbs have garnered attention as a potentially safer and more effective alternative. ChangQing compound derived from various Chinese herbal medicines is a promising anticoccidiosis agent, but its therapeutic effects have not been comprehensively evaluated. This study aimed to assess the therapeutic efficacy of ChangQing Compound against Eimeria tenella-induced coccidiosis in chickens on the basis of physiological indicators, cecum lesions, and changes in microbial diversity. The comparison with the positive control group revealed the average weight gain (AWG) and anticoccidial index (ACI) of the chicks were significantly higher, in contrast, the feed conversion ratio (FCR), cecal lesion score (CLS), and oocyst count per gram of cecal content (OPG) were significantly lower (P<0.05). Notably, AWG (138.87 g), OPG (0.57 × 106), ACI (177.92), and FCR (2.51) reflected the significant therapeutic effect of the 2.5 g/L ChangQing compound treatment (CQM). Histological sections showed that the cecal villus damage and intestinal wall swelling were minimal in the CQM, consistent with the CLS (0.73). Additionally, the 2.5 g/L ChangQing compound treatment effectively prevented the decrease of red blood cells, platelets, and hemoglobin, while promoting the release of anti-inflammatory factors interleukin-10 and interleukin-4, and inhibiting the pro-inflammatory factors interferon-γ and interleukin-17. The microbial community structure in the CQM was most similar to that of the negative control group. In summary, ChangQing compound had multiple positive effects (e.g., promoting weight gain, alleviating anemia, suppressing coccidial proliferation, reducing intestinal damage, modulating immunity, and maintaining intestinal microbiota homeostasis). The study results may be relevant to developing a novel strategy for the clinical management of coccidiosis.

Anticoccidial potentials of Azadirachta indica ethosomal nanovesicle in broiler chicks

This study evaluated the efficacy of Azadirachta indica ethosomal nanovesicle against Eimeria tenella infection in broiler chicks. Azadirachta indica ethanolic extract was screened phtochemically and analyzed active components of the extracts using high‑performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Azadirachta indica ethosomal nanovesicle was synthesized and characterized by zeta potential and scanning electron microscope. Broiler chicks were allocated into seven groups. Control group. The second group administered nanosized ethosomal vesicles (1 mL/kg b.wt.). The third group administered Azadirachta indica nanovesicles (30 mg/kg b.wt.) from 10th day of age. Fourth group was infected with E. tenella at a dose of 1 mL containing 40000 oocyst/ chick at 14th day of age. The fifth group administered Azadirachta indica nanovesicle (30 mg/kg b.wt.) from 10th day of age and infected with E. tenella as fourth group. The sixth group infected with E. tenella as the fourth group and treated with Azadirachta indica nanovesicle (30 mg/kg b.wt. for 4 days after clinical signs appearance. The seventh group infected with E. tenella as the fourth group and treated with diclazuril group (1 mL/4 L of water) for 2 successive days. Coccidiosis significantly decreased body weight, feed intake, reduced glutathione (GSH) level while increased feed conversion ratio, oocyst count, malonaldehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) serum levels, protein expression of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin 6 (IL-6), BAX and Caspase 3, in cecal tissue and induced cecal tissue injury. However, administration of coccidiosis chicks Azadirachta indica nanovesicle enhanced body weight, and serum GSH. While decreased feed intake, feed conversion ratio, oocyst count, MDA, and NO serum levels, and protein expression of IL-1β, IL-6, BAX, and caspase 3 in cecal tissues and ameliorated cecal tissue damage. This study indicated that, A. indica ethosomal nanovesicle had potent anticoccidial properties.

Trifolium pratense as a novel phytogenic supplement, is an anticoccidial agent in chickens

Coccidiosis, caused by a protozoan parasite of the genus Eimeria, is one of the most severe contagious parasite diseases affecting the poultry industry worldwide. Using phytogenics to prevent chicken coccidiosis is a strategy aimed at combating the increasing issue of drug-resistant strains of Eimeria spp. This study demonstrates the anticoccidial activities of a medicinal herb, Trifolium pratense (TP) powder, and its ethanolic extract (designated TPE) against Eimeria spp. TPE exhibited significant suppressive activity against E. maxima oocyst sporulation and E. tenella sporozoite invasion and reproduction in Madin-Darby bovine kidney cells. Furthermore, administration of basal chicken diets containing TP powder or TPE to Eimeria-infected chickens significantly reduced the output of oocysts and severity of intestinal lesions. Dietary supplementation with TP significantly improved relative weight gain in E. tenella- and E. acervulina-infected chickens, while there was no significant improvement in E. maxima-infected chickens. The anticoccidial activities of TP and TPE on E. acervulina, E. tenella and E. maxima were further supported by anticoccidial index scores, which showed greater efficacy than those of amprolium, a commercial coccidiostat used in poultry. TP supplementation positively impacted the primary metabolism of chickens challenged with E. tenella or E. acervulina. The chemical fingerprints of TPE were established using liquid column chromatography; TPE contained 4 major compounds: ononin, sissotrin, formononetin, and biochanin A. In addition, various spectrometric methods were used to ensure the batch-to-batch consistency of TP/TPE. In conclusion, T. pratense is demonstrated to be a novel phytogenic supplement that can be used to control Eimeria-induced coccidiosis in chickens.

Effect of ginseng stem leaf extract on the production performance, meat quality, antioxidant status, immune function, and lipid metabolism of broilers

Introduction

The present study explores the effect of ginseng stem leaf (GSL) extract on the production performance, meat quality, antioxidant status, immune function, and lipid metabolism of white feathered broilers.

Methods

There were 6 replicates in each group, with 10 broilers in each replicate. In the 42 day trial, 300 AA broilers were randomly divided into five groups: control group (CON), 1.25% GSL extract group (GSL-L), 2.5% GSL group (GSL-M), 5% GSL group (GSL-H), and 45 mg/kg chlortetracycline group (CTC).

Results

The results showed that different doses of GSL extract could improve the body weight, feed to gain ratio (F/G), average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily gain (ADG), and meat quality of broilers. Compared with the control group, the addition of different doses of GSL improved the antioxidant and immune abilities of broilers to varying degrees, and the effect of GSL extract was significant in the GSL-H group (p < 0.05). In addition, medium and high doses of GSL extract significantly reduced the blood triglyceride (TG) and total cholesterol (TC) contents of broilers (p < 0.05).

Discussion

Adding GSL extract to the feed has a positive impact on the body weight, meat quality, antioxidant capacity, immunity, and blood lipids of broilers.

Innovative prevention and control of coccidiosis: targeting sporogony for new control agent development

Coccidiosis is one of the most significant diseases affecting the poultry industry, with recent estimates indicating that it causes annual losses exceeding £10 billion globally. Increasing concerns over drug residues and resistance have elevated the importance of safe and effective vaccines as the primary method for controlling coccidiosis and other animal diseases. However, current commercial live vaccines for coccidiosis can negatively impact the feed conversion rates of young broilers and induce subclinical symptoms of coccidiosis, limiting their widespread adoption. Eimeria species, the causative agents of coccidiosis, exhibit unique biological characteristics. Their life cycle involves 2 or more generations of schizogony and 1 generation of gametogony within the host, followed by sporogony in a suitable external environment. Sporogony is crucial for Eimeria oocysts to become infectious and propagate within the host. Focusing on the sporogony process of Eimeria presents a promising approach to overcoming technical challenges in the efficient control of coccidiosis, addressing the urgent need for sustainable and healthy farming practices. This paper systematically reviews existing control strategies for coccidiosis, identifies current challenges, and emphasizes the research progress and future directions in developing control agents targeting sporogony. The goal is to provide guidance for the formulation of scientific prevention and control measures for coccidiosis.

Evaluating the Impact of the PoultryStar®Bro Probiotic on the Incidence of Bacterial Chondronecrosis with Osteomyelitis Using the Aerosol Transmission Challenge Model

Bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO) lameness is a major welfare issue for broiler production worldwide affecting approximately 1.5% of broilers over 42 days old. Excessive body weight gain causes mechanical stress on long bones, leading to micro-fractures. This condition induces a bacterial infection of fractures, resulting in bone necrosis and eventual BCO lameness. Increasing gut integrity and supporting Calcium metabolism contribute to the optimal bone structure and subsequently reduce BCO lameness. Probiotics thus provide an excellent strategy for alleviating BCO due to the improvement of intestinal integrity and barrier function. Accordingly, the present study investigated the lameness reduction through the feed supplementation of a selected probiotic. Broiler chickens were assigned to three treatments, including a control litter group (FL), a PoultryStar®Bro probiotic fed group (BRO), and a control wire-flooring group (CW) designed to induce BCO lameness. The probiotic significantly decreased lameness by 46% compared to the control group (p < 0.05). The most predominant bacteria identified from the BCO lesions were Staphylococcus cohnii and Staphylococcus lentus. Moreover, significant increments of tight junction gene expression in jejunum and ileum, plus numerical improvements of body weight gain (BW; +360 g) and feed conversion ratio (FCR; -12 pts) were observed in BRO-supplemented birds.

Silymarin effectively prevents and treats Eimeria tenella infection in chicks

Silymarin, a botanical medicine derived from milk thistle seeds and is known to improve chicken growth and gut health when added to the feed. However, its role in the prevention and treatment of chicken coccidiosis remains unclear. This study investigated the efficacy of various doses of silymarin in preventing and treating Eimeria tenella infection in chicks. A total of 180 one-day-old specific pathogen-free chicks were randomized into six groups of 30 chicks each, no treatment (NC group); E. tenella infection (CC group); diclazuril medication during d 14 to 21 and E. tenella infection (DC group); and three groups infected with E. tenella and administered low, medium, or high doses of silymarin during d 12 to 21. All groups except NC were infected with E. tenella on d 14, with indicators observed on d 21. The growth performance was higher in the silymarin treated groups than that in the CC group, and the oocyst count per gram of manure, blood stool, and cecal lesion scores decreased. The medium-dose silymarin group exhibited the best treatment effect. Additionally, the silymarin groups displayed improved histological, morphology, and intestinal barrier integrity. The amounts of proinflammatory factors and harmful bacteria in the cecum were also reduced. Additionally, the activity of serum and cecal antioxidant enzymes, as well as the abundance of beneficial gut microbiota, increased in the cecum. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that silymarin can prevent and treat E. tenella infections. These data provide a scientific and conceptual basis for the development of a botanical dietary supplement from silymarin for the treatment and control of coccidiosis in chicks.

Influences of Bacillus pumilus SA388 as an environmentally friendly antibiotic alternative on growth performance, blood biochemistry, immunology, cecal microbiota, and meat quality in broiler chickens

The widespread use of antibiotics causes the development of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains, which have a severe impact on poultry productivity and human health. As a result, research is continuing to develop safe natural antibiotic alternatives. In the current study, Bacillus pumilus SA388 was isolated from the chicken feces and confirmed to be a probiotic. The selected strain was tested for its antimutagenic and antioxidant capabilities before being employed as a probiotic food supplement and antibiotic alternative. The effect of B. pumilus SA388 impact on broiler chickens' growth performance, gut microbiome, blood biochemical markers, immunological response, and meat quality was also studied. B. pumilus SA388 showed significant bactericidal activity against Streptococcus pyogenes, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, and Klebsiella pneumonia. A total of 200 chickens were used in the present study, divided equally among four experimental groups (ten birds per group with 5 replicates): group 1 (control, G1) received a basal diet without B. pumilus SA388, group 2 (G2) received a basal diet supplemented with 0.4 mg/kg of B. pumilus SA388, group 3 (G3) received a basal diet supplemented with 0.8 mg/kg of B. pumilus SA388, and group 4 (G4) received a basal diet supplemented with 1.6 mg/kg of B. pumilus SA388. Over 35 d, the B. pumilus SA388-supplemented groups outperformed the G1 in terms of body weight gain, performance index, and feed conversion ratio, with a preference for the G4 treatment. The levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and total cholesterol decreased significantly (P < 0.05) with increasing B. pumilus SA388 dosages compared to the control G1 group. Dietary supplementation of B. pumilus SA388 at 1.6 mg/kg (G4) significantly (P < 0.05) resulted in improved lipid profile, immunological response, thyroid function, and gut microbiota compared to the control group (G1). Compared to the broilers in the control treatment (G1), the addition of B. pumilus SA388 to broilers in G4 significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced juiciness, tenderness, aroma, and taste. Adding B. pumilus SA388 to chicken feed at different doses significantly (P < 0.05) decreased average feed intake while increasing economic and relative efficiency measures. In conclusion, B. pumilus SA388 has been proven to be an effective antibiotic and nutritional supplement.

Efficacy of liver free and Chitosan against Eimeria tenella in chickens

Eimeria spp. are the pathogen that causes coccidiosis, a significant disease that affects intensively reared livestock, especially poultry. Anticoccidial feed additives, chemicals, and ionophores have routinely been employed to reduce Eimeria infections in broiler production. Therefore, the shift to antibiotic-free and organic farming necessitates novel coccidiosis preventive strategies. The present study evaluated the effects of potential feed additives, liver free and chitosan, against Eimeria tenella infection in White Leghorn broiler female chickens. One hundred sixty-five 1-day-old White Leghorn broiler female chicks were divided into 11 groups (15 female chicks per group), including the positive control group (G1), the negative control group (G2), a chitosan-treated group (G3), a chitosan-treated-infected group (G4), the liver free-treated group (G5), the liver free-treated-infected group (G6), the liver free-and-chitosan-treated group (G7), the liver free-and-chitosan-infected group (G8), the therapeutic liver free-and-chitosan-treated-infected group (G9), the sulfaquinoxaline-treated group (G10), and the sulfaquinoxaline-treated-infected group (G11). Chitosan was fed to the chicks in G3 and G4 as a preventative measure at a dose of 250 mg/kg. The G5 and G6 groups received 1.5 mg/kg of Liverfree. The G7 and G8 groups received chitosan and Liverfree. The G10 and G11 groups were administered 2 g/L of sulfaquinoxaline. From the moment the chicks arrived at Foshan University (one-day-old chicks) until the completion of the experiment, all medications were given to them as a preventative measure. G8 did; however, receive chitosan and liver free as therapeutic supplements at 7 dpi. The current study showed that the combination of liver free and chitosan can achieve better prophylactic and therapeutic effects than either alone. In E. tenella challenged chickens, G8 and G9 chickens showed reduced oocyst shedding and lesion score, improved growth performance (body weight, body weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, and mortality rate), and cecal histology. The current study demonstrates that combining liver free and chitosan has superior preventive and therapeutic benefits than either alone, and they could also be used as alternative anticoccidial agents.

Study on the alleviative effect of Lactobacillus plantarum on Eimeria falciformis infection

Coccidia of the genus Eimeria are specialized intracellular parasitic protozoa that cause severe coccidiosis when they infect their hosts. Animals infected with Eimeria develop clinical symptoms, such as anorexia, diarrhea, and hematochezia, which can even cause death. Although the current preferred regimen for the treatment of coccidiosis is antibiotics, this treatment strategy is limited by the ban on antibiotics and the growing problem of drug resistance. Therefore, the exploration of alternative methods for controlling coccidiosis has attracted much attention. Lactobacillus plantarum has been shown to have many beneficial effects. In this study, L. plantarum M2 was used as a research object to investigate the effect of L. plantarum on intestinal inflammation induced by infection with Eimeria falciformis in mice by detecting indicators, such as oocyst output, serum cytokines, and the intestinal microbiota. Compared with that in the infection group, the percent weight loss of the mice that were administered with L. plantarum M2 was significantly reduced (P < 0.05). Supplemented L. plantarum M2 and probiotics combined with diclazuril can reduce the total oocyst output significantly (P < 0.05, P < 0.001). L. plantarum M2 had outstanding performance in maintaining intestinal barrier function, and the levels of the mucin MUC1 and the tight junction protein E-cadherin were significantly elevated (P < 0.01, P < 0.05). Studies have shown that probiotic supplementation can alleviate adverse reactions after infection and significantly improve intestinal barrier function. In addition, probiotics combined with diclazuril could optimize the partial efficacy of diclazuril, which not only enhanced the effect of antibiotics but also alleviated their adverse effects. This study expands the application of probiotics, provides new ideas for alternative strategies for coccidia control, and suggests a basis for related research on lactobacilli antagonizing intracellular pathogen infection.IMPORTANCECoccidia of the genus Eimeria are specialized intracellular parasitic protozoa, and the current preferred regimen for the treatment of coccidiosis is antibiotics. However, due to antibiotic bans and drug resistance, the exploration of alternative methods for controlling coccidiosis has attracted much attention. In this work, we focused on Lactobacillus plantarum M2 and found that probiotic supplementation can alleviate adverse reactions after infection and improve intestinal barrier function. This study proposes the possibility of using lactic acid bacteria to control coccidiosis, and its potential mechanism needs further exploration.

Effect of dietary treatments on performance, oocysts shedding and lesion scores in broiler chickens experimentally challenged with Eimeria infection

Although anticoccidials effectively control coccidiosis, a needed reduction in the reliance on antimicrobials in animal production leads to the exploration of alternative compounds. The present study aimed to test five different dietary treatments to counteract the negative impact of coccidiosis on broiler chickens' health and performance. 1-day-old male Ross 308 broilers (n = 960) were randomly assigned to one of eight treatments, with six cages per treatment (20 birds/cage). To the diet of the broiler chickens of treatments (Trt) 1-5, a synbiotic was added from d0-10. From d10-28, birds of Trt1 and Trt2 were fed synbiotics, whereas birds of Trt3 were fed diets with glutamine, and birds of Trt4 and Trt5 were fed diets with a combination of β-glucans and betaine. From d28-35 onwards, birds of Trt1 were fed a diet with a synbiotic, whereas birds of Trt2-4 received diets with glutamine, and birds of Trt5 were fed a non-supplemented diet. Birds of the positive control group (PC; Trt6) were fed a standard diet supplemented with an anticoccidial (Decoquinate). The challenged negative control (NCchall; Trt7) and non-challenged negative control (NC) Trt8 were fed a standard diet without anticoccidial or other dietary treatment. At 7 days (d) of age, all birds were inoculated with 1 023, 115, and 512 sporulated oocysts of E. acervulina, E. maxima, and E. tenella, respectively, except for Trt8. Body weight gain (BWG), feed intake, and feed conversion ratio were assessed for each feeding phase (d0-10, d10-28 and d28-35) and overall experimental period (d0-35). Oocyst shedding, Eimeria lesion scores, cecal length, and relative weight were assessed at d13, d22, d28 and d35. Additionally, oocyst shedding was determined at d9 and d17. Litter quality was evaluated at d27 and d34, and footpad lesions at d34. During the starter (d0-10) and finisher (d28-35) periods, performance did not differ between the treatments. During the grower period (d10-28), Trt6 (PC) and Trt8 (NC) chickens had the highest BWG of all treatments (P < 0.001). Dietary treatment had no effect on litter quality and severity of footpad lesions. In the PC group (Trt6), low oocyst excretion and lesion scores were found. When comparing Trt1-5 with NCchall (Trt7), none of the treatments significantly reduced oocyst output or lesion scores. In conclusion, in this experiment, none of the dietary treatments performed similar or better compared to the PC group (Trt6) regarding performance or reducing Eimeria oocyst shedding or lesion scores.

Effects of Artemisia annua supplementation on the performance and gut health of laying hens challenged with mixed Eimeria species

Background

Coccidiosis outbreaks in susceptible laying hens can significantly decrease egg production and cause substantial economic loss to the egg industry. The supplementation of poultry diets with chemotherapeutic agents is limited due to antimicrobial resistance and residue in poultry meat or processed products. Therefore, alternative strategies to control coccidiosis are needed, and Artemisia annua (AA) might have the potential to be a phytogenic feed additive, an alternative to anticoccidial agents. This study aimed to investigate the effect of the dietary supplementation of powdered AA on the performance and gut health of laying hens infected with coccidiosis by Eimeria spp.

Methods

A total of 225 Hy-Line W-36 laying hens at 23 weeks of age were allocated into 5 treatment groups: 1) control (NC), 2) pair-fed (PF) control, 3) challenged control (CC), 4) CC with dietary inclusion of 0.5% AA (0.5AA), and v) CC with dietary inclusion of 1% AA (1AA). The hens in the CC, 0.5AA, and 1AA groups were orally inoculated with sporulated oocysts of Eimeria maxima (12,500), Eimeria tenella (12,500), and Eimeria acervulina (62,500) at week 25. The PF hens received the same amount of feed consumed by the CC hens from 0-14 days post-inoculation (dpi) of Eimeria spp. The performance of the laying hens, including body weight (BW), hen-day egg production (HDEP), feed intake (FI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR), was measured weekly. Additionally, markers of intestinal health, including gut permeability, lesion score, intestinal morphometry, and immune responses, were evaluated at 6, 14, and 21 dpi.

Results

At 6 and 14 dpi, laying hens challenged with Eimeria spp. had a lower BW than PF and NC hens (p < 0.0001). Supplementation of 1% AA improved the HDEP by 8.1% compared to CC hens; however, it was still 15.4% lower than that of PF hens (p < 0.0001). The inclusion of 1% AA did not have any beneficial effect on FI; however, the FCR was improved by 0.61 (2.46) than that of CC hens (3.07; p < 0.0001). The inclusion of 1% AA reduced the severity of the intestinal lesions and increased the recovery of intestinal villi (p < 0.05). Additionally, gut permeability was significantly different between the challenged and non-challenged hens; however, among the challenged hens, the inclusion of AA reduced the gut permeability by 29% compared to CC hens (p < 0.0001). Furthermore, the inclusion of 0.5% AA reduced the inflammatory responses in the infected hens.

Conclusion

Dietary inclusion of AA partially restored the performance and gut health of the laying hens and modulated their inflammatory immune response following Eimeria infection; however, further studies are needed to better understand the mode of action and effective dosages to improve the gut health without negative impacts on the performance.

Identification of Eimeria acervulina (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) infecting the broiler chicken Gallus gallus domesticus through morphology and molecular analyses

Coccidiosis is an intestinal protozoan disease that affects the poultry industry worldwide. The severity of this disease varies depending on the identity of the infectious agents. Therefore, this study was carried out to identify the Eimeria species that affect broiler chickens, Gallus gallus domesticus, through morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses. Twenty-five faecal samples were collected from the broiler chickens in a commercial poultry farm in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia). Using the floatation technique, faeces were examined microscopically for the Eimeria occurrence. Identification of Eimeria species was performed based on morphological criteria and molecular tools (DNA amplification for the partial small subunit ribosomal RNA (18S rRNA), internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-1, and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) genes. In this study, 32% (8 out of 25) of collected samples were found to be positive for coccidiosis. After sporulation in potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), the sporulated oocysts were observed as ovoid and measured 18.37-23.19 µm (19.87) long and 15.07-18.67 µm (16.46) wide, with the anterior location of a polar granule and absence of micropyle. These Eimeria oocysts were assumed to size and shape characteristics of Eimeria acervulina. Molecular analysis was conducted on the sequences of the polymerase chain reaction products from the three genes studied (18S rRNA, ITS-1, and COI). At the three genes, results showed that the resultant sequences clustered with E. acervulina from different regions confirming morphological description. This study highlighted the importance of molecular techniques to detect avian Eimeria species more than the traditional morphology-based tool to optimise the appropriate anticoccidial strategies for long-term control in the studied area.

Synthesis and evaluation of febrifugine derivatives as anticoccidial agents

A series of new febrifugine derivatives with a 4(3H)-quinazolinone scaffold were synthesized and evaluated for their anticoccidial activity both in vitro and in vivo. The targets' in vitro activity against Eimeria tenella was studied using quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Madin-Darby bovine kidney cells. Most of these compounds demonstrated anticoccidial efficacy, with inhibition ratios ranging from 3.3% to 85.7%. Specifically, compounds 33 and 34 showed significant inhibitory effects on the proliferation of E. tenella and exhibited lower cytotoxicity compared to febrifugine. The IC50 values of compounds 33 and 34 were 3.48 and 1.79 μM, respectively, while the CC50 values were >100 μM for both compounds. Furthermore, in a study involving 14-day-old chickens infected with 5 × 104 sporulated oocysts, treatment with five selected compounds (22, 24, 28, 33, and 34), which exhibited in vitro inhibition rate of over 50% at 100 μM, at a dose of 40 mg/kg in daily feed for 8 consecutive days showed that compound 34 possessed moderate in vivo activity against coccidiosis, with an anticoccidial index of 164. Structure-activity relationship studies suggested that spirocyclic piperidine may be a preferable substructure to maintain high effectiveness in inhibiting Eimeria spp., when the side chain 1-(3-hydroxypiperidin-2-yl)propan-2-one was replaced.

In vivo assessment of the antiparasitic effects of Allium sativum L. and Artemisia absinthium L. against gastrointestinal parasites in swine from low-input farms

BACKGROUND

Ethno-veterinary practices could be used as a sustainable developmental tool by integrating traditional phytotherapy and husbandry. Phytotherapeutics are available and used worldwide. However, evidence of their antiparasitic efficacy is currently very limited. Parasitic diseases have a considerable effect on pig production, causing economic losses due to high morbidity and mortality. In this respect, especially smallholders and organic producers face severe challenges. Parasites, as disease causing agents, often outcompete other pathogens in such extensive production systems. A total of 720 faecal samples were collected in two farms from three age categories, i.e. weaners, fatteners, and sows. Flotation (Willis and McMaster method), modified Ziehl-Neelsen stained faecal smear, centrifugal sedimentation, modified Blagg technique, and faecal cultures were used to identify parasites and quantify the parasitic load.

RESULTS

The examination confirmed the presence of infections with Eimeria spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Balantioides coli (syn. Balantidium coli), Ascaris suum, Oesophagostomum spp., Strongyloides ransomi, and Trichuris suis, distributed based on age category. A dose of 180 mg/kg bw/day of Allium sativum L. and 90 mg/kg bw/day of Artemisia absinthium L. powders, administered for 10 consecutive days, revealed a strong, taxonomy-based antiprotozoal and anthelmintic activity.

CONCLUSIONS

The results highlighted the therapeutic potential of both A. sativum and A. absinthium against gastrointestinal parasites in pigs. Their therapeutic effectiveness may be attributed to the content in polyphenols, tocopherols, flavonoids, sterols, sesquiterpene lactones, and sulfoxide. Further research is required to establish the minimal effective dose of both plants against digestive parasites in pigs.

Prophylactic and Therapeutic Efficacy of Ultrasonicated Rosmarinus officinalis Ethanolic Extract and its Chitosan-Loaded Nanoparticles Against Eimeria tenella Infected Broiler Chickens

PURPOSE

The in vivo efficacy of ultrasonicated Rosmarinus officinalis ethanolic extract (UROEE) and its chitosan-loaded nanoparticles (UROEE-CsNPs) was investigated as a dietary prophylactic agent and as a therapeutic treatment against Eimeria tenella infected broiler chickens.

METHODS

Chickens were infected with 4 × 104 E. tenella oocysts at 21 days old for primary infection and with 8 × 104 oocysts at 35 days old for secondary infection. Eleven experimental groups were conducted. Dietary addition of 100 mg/kg UROEE and 20 mg/kg for CsNPs as well as UROEE-CsNPs were included for prophylactic groups from day 1 to 42. The same doses were used for therapeutic treatment groups for 5 constitutive days. Oocyst output in feces was counted. Histopathological and immunohistochemical studies were conducted. Gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines as IFN-γ, IL-1β and IL-6 as well as anti-inflammatory cytokines as IL-10 and TGF-β4 was analyzed using semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR.

RESULTS

The results showed an efficacy of UROEE, CsNPs and UROEE-CsNPs in reduction of oocyst excretion and improving the cecal tissue architecture. CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes protein expression were reduced. E. tenella infection lead to upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines as IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6 and anti-inflammatory cytokines as TGF-β4 following primary infection, while their expression was downregulated following secondary infection.

CONCLUSION

The dietary prophylactic additives and therapeutic treatments with UROEE, CsNPs and UROEE-CsNPs could decrease the inflammatory response to E. tenella as indicated by oocyst output reduction, histopathological improvements, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells protein expression reduction as well as reducing mRNA expression levels of the tested cytokines following primary and secondary infections. Consequently, these results will help to develop better-combating strategies for the control and prevention of coccidiosis on poultry farms as a dietary prophylactic agent or as a therapeutic treatment.

Consequences of dietary cinnamon and ginger oils supplementation on blood biochemical parameters, oxidative status, and tissue histomorphology of growing Japanese quails

The present study aimed to investigate the impact of various concentrations of ginger and cinnamon oils as antibiotic substitutes on some blood biochemical parameters, antioxidant capacity, and histopathological profile of the liver and gut of growing Japanese. A total of 900 Japanese quails were randomly allotted into 6 treatment groups. Each group had 5 replicates (30 chicks each). The first group received a basal diet and served as the control, while the second received a basal diet plus 0.5 g of colistin antibiotic/kg diet. The third and fourth groups were supplemented with 0.5 mL and 1.0 mL of ginger oil (GO)/kg diet, respectively. While the fifth and sixth groups received basal diet with 0.5 and 1.0 mL of cinnamon oil (CO)/kg diet, respectively. Results showed that adding herbal oils significantly (P < 0.05) decreased the aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and urea levels compared to control and colistin groups. Various levels of GO and CO significantly (P < 0.05) reduced cholesterol levels compared to control birds. Compared to the control and antibiotic groups, Japanese quails supplemented with various levels of herbal oils (GO and CO) had more extraordinarily significant (P < 0.05) values for total antioxidant capacity (TAC), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and glutathione reductase (GSR). Regarding histopathologic examination, the jejunum displayed a nearly empty lumen, a few fusions, and mild goblet cell metaplasia. On the other hand, the duodenum looked tall and had a few fusions of villi and remnants of removal in its lumina. It could be concluded that cinnamon and GO improved birds' blood biochemical parameters, electorate oxidative stress, and enhanced intestinal and hepatic histology of the treated quails. Also, the levels of 0.5 mL CO and 0.5 mL GO may be an acceptable substitute for antibiotics (colistin) in the diets of growing Japanese quail.

Dietary Paenibacillus polymyxa AM20 as a new probiotic: Improving effects on IR broiler growth performance, hepatosomatic index, thyroid hormones, lipid profile, immune response, antioxidant parameters, and caecal microorganisms

The search for a natural antimicrobial agent is ongoing and critical because of the rise and rapid proliferation of antibiotic-resistant pathogenic bacteria. The current study aims to examine the effect of Paenibacillus polymyxa AM20 as an alternative antibiotic and feed additive on Indian river broiler performance, digestive enzymes, thyroid hormones, lipid profile, hepatosomatic index, immunological response, gut bacteria, and antioxidant parameters. The bacterial isolate AM20 was identified at the gene level by isolating DNA and using PCR to detect genes. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, the bacterial isolate was identified as Paenibacillus polymyxa. One hundred twenty Indian river broilers (1-day old) were randomly divided into 4 groups of 10 chicks each, with 3 replicates. The control group was fed a basal diet only, while the other 3 were administered control diets supplemented with P. polymyxa at 3 concentrations: 0.5, 1, and 1.5 mg/kg. The findings revealed that all groups that received graded amounts of P. polymyxa increased all growth parameters throughout the study. P. polymyxa treatment at 1.5 mg/kg increased body gain by 9% compared to the control due to increased feed intake (P = 0.0001), growth rate (P = 0.0001), and decreased feed conversion ratio. Compared to the control group, P. polymyxa (1.5 mg/kg) enhanced kidney functions in chickens by reducing uric acid and creatinine levels (P = 0.0451). Compared to the control group, alanine aminotransferase and aspartate transaminase levels in the liver were significantly reduced at all P. polymyxa doses. Liver function values were highest for P. polymyxa at 1.5 mg/kg. Compared to the control group, those whose diets included P. polymyxa had significantly better blood cholesterol levels, high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, immunological response, thyroid function, and gut microbiota. In general, broiler chickens' economic efficiency was improved by including P. polymyxa in their diet, which also improved their growth performance, carcass dressing, specific blood biochemical levels and enzymes, and the composition of the gut microbiota.

MicroRNA expression profile of chicken jejunum in different time points Eimeria maxima infection

Coccidiosis stands as a protozoan disease of notable economic impact, characterized by an intracellular parasite that exerts substantial influence over poultry production. This invasion disrupts the integrity of the enteric mucosa, leading to the emergence of severe lesions and diminishing the efficiency of feed utilization in chickens. MicroRNA (miRNA) are short, non-coding RNA molecules with approximately 21-24 nucleotides long in size that play essential roles in various infectious diseases and inflammatory responses. However, the miRNA's expression patterns and roles in the context of Eimeria maxima infection of chicken intestines remain unclear. miRNA sequencing was employed to assess the miRNA expression profile in chicken jejunum during E. maxima infection. In this study, we analyzed miRNA expression profiles related to the host's immune response in the chicken jejunum during E. maxima infection. At 4 days infection and control (J4I versus J4C), 21 differentially expressed miRNAs in the jejunum were identified, comprising 9 upregulated and 12 downregulated miRNAs. Furthermore, in the jejunum, at 7 days infection and control (J7I versus J7C) groups, a total of 35 significantly differentially expressed miRNAs were observed, with 13 upregulated and 22 downregulated miRNAs. The regulatory networks were constructed between differentially expressed miRNA and mRNAs to offer insight into the interaction mechanisms between chickens and E. maxima coccidian infection. Furthermore, within the comparison group, we obtained 946, 897, and 281 GO terms that exhibited significant enrichment associated with host immunity in the following scenarios, J4I vs. J4C, J7I vs. J7C, and J4I vs. J7I, respectively. The KEGG pathway analysis indicated notable enrichment of differentially expressed miRNAs in the jejunum, particularly in J4I vs. J4C; enriched pathways included metabolic pathways, endocytosis, MAPK signaling pathway, regulation of actin cytoskeleton, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction. Moreover, in J7I vs. J7C, the KEGG pathway was significantly enriched, including metabolic pathways, protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum, ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, and FoxO signaling pathway. A comprehensive understanding of the host genetic basis of resistance with a combination of time-dependent infection to the Eimeria parasite is crucial for pinpointing resistance biomarkers for poultry production.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Eimeria spp. in Broiler Chickens from Pichincha and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas, Ecuador

Coccidiosis in chickens is a parasitic disease of economic importance for the poultry industry. In Ecuador, there is limited information regarding the prevalence of Eimeria spp. on commercial broiler farms. Therefore, a total of 155 poultry farms in the provinces of Pichincha and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas were surveyed. The analysis of fresh fecal samples was conducted to determine the parasitic load of six of the seven chicken Eimeria species (excluding E. mitis) through multiplex PCR. Additionally, an epidemiological survey was performed to assess the risk factors associated with the infection using a multivariable logistic regression model. All samples tested positive for the presence of Eimeria spp., despite the farmers having implemented prophylactic measures, and no clinical coccidiosis cases were recorded. The parasitic load varied between 25 and 69,900 oocyst per gram. The species prevalence was as follows: Eimeria spp. 100%, E. maxima 80.4%, E. acervulina 70.6%, E. praecox 55.4%, E. tenella 53.6%, E. necatrix 52.2%, and E. brunetti 30.8%. The main species combination was E. cervuline, E. maxima, E. necatrix, and E. praecox (23.90%), followed by E. tenella, as a unique species (10.69%), and then E. acervulina, E. maxima, and E. praecox (8.81%). It was observed that farms operated by independent producers had a higher amount of Eimeria spp. and higher probability of the presence of E. brunetti, E. necatrix, E. praecox, and E. tenella. Poultry houses located below 1300 m above sea level were associated with a higher parasitic load and the presence of E. brunetti. Birds younger than 35 days of age and from open-sided poultry houses (with rudimentary environmental control) had a higher probability of presenting E. maxima. Drinking water from wells increased the risk of E. praecox presence. Research aimed at designing control strategies to improve health management on poultry farms in the region would help minimize the impact of coccidiosis.

Coinfection of the gut with protozoal and metazoal parasites in broiler and laying chickens

The chicken business faces substantial economic losses due to the risk of parasitic coinfection. Because the current study aimed to investigate enteric parasitic coinfections problems among the suspected examined chicken farms, samples were collected during the field investigation from suspected freshly dead birds, clinically diseased, apparently healthy, and litter samples for further laboratory parasitological, histopathological, and immunological examinations. Variable mortalities with various clinical indicators, such as ruffled feathers, weight loss, diarrhea of various colors, and a decline in egg production, occurred on the farms under investigation. In addition, the treatment protocols of each of the farms that were evaluated were documented and the m-RNA levels of some cytokines and apoptotic genes among the infected poultry have been assessed. The prevalence rate of parasitic coinfection in the current study was found to be 8/120 (6.66%). Parasitological analysis of the samples revealed that they belonged to distinct species of Eimeria, cestodes, and Ascaridia galli. When deposited, A. galli eggs were nonembryonated and ellipsoidal, but cestodes eggs possessed a thin, translucent membrane that was subspherical. Eimeria spp. oocysts in layer chickens were identified as Eimeria acervulina and Eimeria maxima in broiler chickens. Our findings proved that coinfection significantly upregulated the IL-1β, BAX, and Cas-3 genes. Conversely, the IL-10, BCL-2, and AKT mRNA levels were downregulated, indicating that nematode triggered apoptosis. The existence of parasite coinfection was verified by histological investigation of the various intestinal segments obtained from affected flocks. A. galli and cestodes obstructed the intestinal lumen, causing different histological alternations in the intestinal mucosa. Additionally, the lamina propria revealed different developmental stages of Eimeria spp. It was determined that parasite coinfection poses a significant risk to the poultry industry. It was recommended that stringent sanitary measures management methods, together with appropriate treatment and preventative procedures, be employed in order to resolve such issues.

Management and control of coccidiosis in poultry - A review

Poultry coccidiosis is an intestinal infection caused by an intracellular parasitic protozoan of the genus Eimeria. Coccidia-induced gastrointestinal inflammation results in large economic losses, hence finding methods to decrease its prevalence is critical for industry participants and academic researchers. It has been demonstrated that coccidiosis can be effectively controlled and managed by employing anticoccidial chemical compounds. However, as a result of their extensive use, anticoccidial drug resistance in Eimeria species has raised concerns. Phytochemical/herbal medicines (Artemisia annua, Bidens pilosa, and garlic) seem to be a promising strategy for preventing coccidiosis, in accordance with the "anticoccidial chemical-free" standards. The impact of herbal supplements on poultry coccidiosis is based on the reduction of oocyst output by preventing the proliferation and growth of Eimeria species in chicken gastrointestinal tissues and lowering intestinal permeability via increased epithelial turnover. This review provides a thorough up-to-date assessment of the state of the art and technologies in the prevention and treatment of coccidiosis in chickens, including the most used phytochemical medications, their mode of action, and the applicable legal framework in the European Union.

Protective Efficacy Induced by the Common Eimeria Antigen Elongation Factor 2 against Challenge with Three Eimeria Species in Chickens

Avian coccidiosis arises from co-infection involving multiple Eimeria species, which could give rise to substantial economic losses in the global poultry industry. As a result, multivalent anticoccidial vaccines containing common Eimeria antigens offer considerable promise for controlling co-infection in clinical practice. In our previous study, Elongation factor 2 (EF2) was deemed as an immunogenic common antigen across various Eimeria species. This current investigation aimed to further assess the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of EF2 in recombinant subunit vaccine format against three Eimeria species. The EF2 gene cloned from Eimeria maxima (E. maxima) cDNA was designated as EF2 of E. maxima (EmEF2). The immunogenicity of the recombinant protein EmEF2 (rEmEF2) was assessed through Western blot analysis. The evaluation of the vaccine-induced immune response encompassed the determination of T lymphocyte subset proportions, cytokine mRNA transcription levels, and specific IgY concentrations in rEmEF2-vaccinated chickens using flow cytometry, quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Subsequently, the protective efficacy of rEmEF2 was evaluated through vaccination and challenge experiments. The findings demonstrated that rEmEF2 was effectively recognized by the His-tag monoclonal antibody and E. maxima chicken antiserum. Vaccination with rEmEF2 increased the proportions of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes, elevated IL-4 and IFN-γ mRNA transcription levels, and enhanced IgY antibody levels compared to the control groups. Moreover, compared to the control groups, vaccination with rEmEF2 led to decreased weight loss, reduced oocyst outputs, and alleviated enteric lesions. Furthermore, in the rEmEF2-immunized groups, challenges with E. maxima and E. acervulina resulted in anticoccidial index (ACI) scores of 166.35 and 185.08, showing moderate-to-excellent protective efficacy. Nevertheless, challenges with E. tenella and mixed Eimeria resulted in ACI scores of 144.01 and 127.94, showing low protective efficacy. In conclusion, EmEF2, a common antigen across Eimeria species, demonstrated the capacity to induce a significant cellular and humoral immune response, as well as partial protection against E. maxima, E. acervulina, and E. tenella. These results highlight EmEF2 as a promising candidate antigen for the development of multivalent vaccines targeting mixed infections by Eimeria species.

Opuntia Ficus-Indica Peel By-Product as a Natural Antioxidant Food Additive and Natural Anticoccidial Drug

The present study was carried out to valorize the Opuntia ficus-indica (OFI) by-products by extracting and identifying their biochemical compounds and evaluating their antioxidant potential by in vitro activities (DPPH radical and FRAP), as well as their capacity to stabilize margarine oxidation (rancimat test). In addition, their in vitro anticoccidial effect on the destruction of Eimeria oocysts isolated from naturally infected chickens was also targeted. Microwaves and response surface methodology tools were used to extract the maximum amount of phenolic compounds (42.05 ± 0.46 GAE mg/g DW of total phenolic compounds in 90 s at 400 watts). Moreover, the effect of extraction factors was also studied. Eight phenolic compounds, including isorhamnetin, dihydrokaempferol, and kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, were identified. The findings confirmed that OFI peel extract has strong antioxidant activities (DPPH radical, ferric reducing power). The rancimat test shows that OFI peel extract improves margarine stability by 3.2 h. Moreover, it has a notable destruction rate of Eimeria oocysts (30.06 ± 0.51%, LC50: 60.53 ± 0.38 mg/mL). The present investigation offers promise for the reuse of food waste as natural margarine additives, protection of the environment, and substitution of anticoccidial synthetic treatments.

Live attenuated anticoccidial vaccines for chickens

Chicken coccidiosis, caused by infection with single or multiple Eimeria species, results in significant economic losses to the global poultry industry. Over the past decades, considerable efforts have been made to generate attenuated Eimeria strains, and the use of live attenuated anticoccidial vaccines for disease prevention has achieved tremendous success. In this review, we evaluate the advantages and limitations of the methods of attenuation as well as attenuated Eimeria strains in a historical perspective. Also, we summarize the recent exciting research advances in transient/stable transfection systems and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-based genome editing developed for Eimeria parasites, and discuss trends and challenges of developing live attenuated anticoccidial vaccines based on transgenesis and genome editing.

Impact of Eimeria tenella experimental Infection on intestinal and splenic reaction of broiler chickens

This work assesses the cell-mediated immune reaction IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ of experimentally challenged broiler chicken with Eimeria tenella (E. tenella). Therefore, ninety, 2-weeks-old healthy broiler chicks were allocated as eighty chicks infected orally with 2.5 × 104 E. tenella sporulated oocysts, and the other ten birds were kept as control negative birds. Post-challenge, mortality rate, symptoms, oocysts shedding, and lesion score were evaluated. Tissue samples (cecum and spleen) were collected at 0, 4, 8, and 12 days post-infection (dpi). Ten chickens were ethically slaughtered at 0, 4, 8, and 12 days post-infection, as well as two birds from the negative control group; parts from cecal and spleen samples were kept in cryopreservation containers, and other parts were preserved in formaline 10% for further investigation. The evaluated genes (IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ) were normal at 0 days and upregulated at 4 and 8 days, which reached maximum upregulation at eight dpi. The histopathological examination of the ceca and spleen were evaluated before and after challenge. It could be concluded that E. tenella revealed direct severe macroscopic and microscopic changes in cecal tissues and indirectly induced alteration in splenic tissues, resulting in upregulation of different cell mediated immune response in cecum and spleen in relation to the experimental period.

Supplementing broiler diets with bacterial selenium nanoparticles enhancing performance, carcass traits, blood indices, antioxidant status, and caecal microbiota of Eimeria tenella-infected broiler chickens

Nanomedicine is a critical therapeutic approach for treating most poultry illnesses, particularly parasitic infections. Coccidiosis is a severe protozoan infection affecting poultry; the emergence of drug-resistant Eimeria strains demands the development of new, safe therapies. Consequently, the objective of this work was to investigate the efficacy of the biosynthesized selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) by Paenibacillus polymyxa (P. polymyxa) against Eimeria tenella (E. tenella) experimental infection in broiler chickens. The prepared SeNPs absorbed the UV at 270 nm were spherical with a size of 26 nm, and had a surface negative charge of -25 mV. One hundred and fifty, 1-day-old male broiler chicks were randomly allocated into 5 groups (30 birds/group with triplicates each) as follows: T1: negative control (noninfected and nontreated with SeNPs); T2: delivered SeNPs (500 µg/kg diet) for 35 successive days, T3: E. tenella-infected (positive control birds), T4: E. tenella-infected and treated with SeNPs (500 µg/kg diet) and T5: E. tenella-infected chicks and treated with anticoccidial agent (sulfadimidine, 16% solution 8 mL/L of drinking water) for 5 successive days. At 14 d of age, each bird in infected groups was orally treated with 3 × 103 sporulated oocyst of E. tenella. SeNPs considerably decreased the number of oocysts in broiler feces compared to positive control and anticoccidial drug, followed by a substantial reduction of parasite phase count in the cecum (15, 10, and 8 for meronts, gamonts, and developing oocysts) when compared with positive control birds. The Eimeria experimental infection lowered the activity of antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and reduced glutathione (GSH) while increasing the stress parameters nitric oxide (NO) and malonaldehyde (MDA). Moreover, the production of proinflammatory (TNF-α and IL-6) and apoptotic genes (BcL2 and Cas-3) were significantly elevated. Administrating SeNPs to chicks significantly decreased oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptotic markers in the cecum tissue. Therefore, growth performance, carcass weights, antioxidant enzymes, and blood properties of infected chicks were enhanced. The findings compared the protecting role of Se-nanoparticles against cecum damages in E. tenella-infected broilers.

A moderate anticoccidial effect of cedrol on Eimeria tenella in broiler chickens

As drug-resistant strains of Eimeria have emerged and concerns about drug residues in poultry have grown, there is renewed interest in identifying natural alternatives to control coccidiosis. Cedrol, a natural sesquiterpene alcohol, was used in this study to test anticoccidial efficacy in chicks. Both the control and treatment groups were orally challenged with 2 × 104 oocysts per chicken. Chicks administered with cedrol had reduced oocyst count, an increase in the relative weight gain rate of chicks, and a decrease in severe swelling of the cecum. Based on the above, ACI was calculated and the cedrol group reached moderate anti-coccidial activity (169.34). In chickens treated with cedrol, there were no changes in serum biochemical parameters, but oxidative stress biomarkers and cytokine levels associated with anticoccidial response were altered. These changes suggest that the administered concentration of cedrol did not have any adverse effects on the chickens while enhancing their antioxidant capacity and immunity, leading to an improved anticoccidial ability. In conclusion, this study shows that the addition of cedrol in poultry production has an anticoccidial effect and successfully improves growth performance during the growth period.

Inhibitory effect of Eimeria maxima IFN-γ inhibitory molecules on the immune function of T cell subsets in chickens

It has been reported that infection of chicken coccidian could inhibit the production of Th1 cytokine IFN-γ, thereby evading clearance by the host immune system. The present study aimed to have a further investigation into the effects of Eimeria maxima IFN-γ inhibitory molecules (EmHPSP-2 and EmHPSP-3) on the immune function of chicken peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and various T cell subsets. First, separated PBMC or sorted T cell subsets were used for incubation with recombinant proteins of EmHPSP-2 (rEmHPSP-2) and EmHPSP-3 (rEmHPSP-3). Subsequently, the effects of rEmHPSP-2 and rEmHPSP-3 on proliferative capacity, nitric oxide (NO) release and mRNA levels of cytokines of the above cells were detected. The sorting purity of CD8+, CD4+ CD25-, CD4+, and CD4+ CD25+ T cells was 93.01, 88.88, 87.04, and 81.26%, respectively. The NO release of PBMC was significantly inhibited by rEmHPSP-2 and rEmHPSP-3. The proliferation of PBMC and CD4+ T cells was significantly inhibited by rEmHPSP-2 and rEmHPSP-3, whereas CD8+, CD4+ CD25-, and CD4+ CD25+ T cells was significantly promoted by the 2 proteins. The 2 proteins significantly downregulated interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) mRNA level, upregulated the transcriptional levels of interleukin-10 (IL-10) and transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-β1) in PBMC. IFN-γ and IL-2 transcriptional levels were markedly inhibited in CD8+ T cells. IFN-γ transcriptional level was significantly inhibited, but IL-4 was promoted by rEmHPSP-2 and rEmHPSP-3 in CD4+ CD25- T cells. Meanwhile, the inhibitory effects of rEmHPSP-2 and rEmHPSP-3 on the transcriptional levels of IFN-γ and IL-2 were more obvious in CD4+ T cells containing CD25+ cells compared with the CD25+ cells depletion group. It was found that IL-10, TGF-β1, and cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4) mRNA levels were significantly upregulated upon stimulation of chicken CD4+ CD25+ T cells by proteins. This study is not only of great significance to clarify the immune evasion mechanism of chicken coccidia, but also provides candidate antigen molecules for development of a novel vaccine against chicken coccidiosis.

Therapeutic effect of a self-made herbal formula on a multi-drug resistant Eimeria tenella isolate infection in broiler chickens

In-feed prophylactic chemotherapy is widely considered the mainstay of avian coccidiosis control, while serious drug resistance strictly restricts its application. Confronted with the urgent need for an alternative strategy, a traditional Chinese medicine formula (TCMF) was developed. Meanwhile, its potential to iron out complicated clinical coccidiosis was scrutinized in vivo with a field-isolated multi-drug resistant Eimeria tenella (E. tenella) isolate. Birds were inoculated with 5 × 104 sporulated oocysts and administrated with TCMF supplementation in water from 72 h post-infection to the end of the experiment, diclazuril (DIC) was set as a positive control. As a result, TCMF intervention reduced oocyst shedding, cecal lesion and mortality, and enhanced body weight gain. According to the above, anticoccidial index (ACI) was calculated and TCMF exerted a moderate anticoccidial activity. Besides, macroscopic, histopathological, and ultrastructural observations revealed the safeguarding effects of TCMF on E. tenella-induced cecal injury. Following, TCMF treatment presented an obvious inhibition effect on E. tenella caused oxidative stress and inflammatory response. Moreover, TCMF supplementation restored the cecal flora abundance and diversity, reduced the colonization of harmful bacteria, and increased the probiotics abundance. In conclusion, TCMF exhibited a moderate anticoccidial effect along with alleviating E. tenella-induced cecal injury, redox imbalance, and inflammatory response which may be associated with the microflora modulatory effect.

Anticoccidial effects of tannin-based herbal formulation (Artemisia annua, Quercus infectoria, and Allium sativum) against coccidiosis in broilers

Background

Avian coccidiosis is considered among the infectious disease of high cost in the poultry industry. Herbal extracts are safe and reliable substitute anticoccidial drugs for chemical feed additives as they do not sequel to drug resistance and tissue remnants.

Objective

The current study aimed to assess the anticoccidial effect of an herbal complex of 3 plants (Artemisia annua, Quercus infectoria, and Allium sativum) in broiler chickens compared to toltrazuril anticoccidial.

Methods

This experiment used one hundred twenty broiler chickens and divided them into four equally numbered groups. All the groups, except group (D), were experimentally infected with mixed Eimeria spp. (E. tenella, E. maxima, E. necatrix and E. brunetti) on day 14. Group (A) was treated with a herbal mixture, containing 75% Quercus infectoria with a minimum of 30% total tannin, 16% Artemisia annua with a minimum of 0.02% artemisinin, and 9% Allium sativum with a minimum of 0.4% total phenol contents. Group (B) was treated with toltrazuril. Group (C) did not have any treatment. Group (D) was healthy all the experiment period as a negative control group. During a 42-day breeding period, the study examined clinical signs, weight gains, feed conversion ratio, lesions scoring, casualties, and the number of oocysts in different bird groups.

Results

Group (D) showed the most significant weight gain, indicating the economic damage caused by coccidiosis. The best feed conversion ratio was observed in the unchallenged group, and coccidiosis negatively affected it in other groups. Clinical signs of dysentery, diarrhea, and lethargy were seen post-challenge but improved with treatment. Group (D) showed no losses; others had casualties and coccidiosis lesions. Lesion scores were lowest in the group (D), and the herbal mixture improved performance. The herbal mixture and toltrazuril reduced oocyst counts in feces earlier than the untreated group.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the anticoccidial activity of the mentioned herbal complex recommends its use as an alternative anticoccidial agent to chemotherapeutic drugs for controlling coccidiosis.

The microneme adhesive repeat domain of MIC3 protein determined the site specificity of Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria maxima, and Eimeria mitis

Understanding the determinants of host and tissue tropisms among parasites of veterinary and medical importance has long posed a substantial challenge. Among the seven species of Eimeria known to parasitize the chicken intestine, a wide variation in tissue tropisms has been observed. Prior research suggested that microneme protein (MIC) composed of microneme adhesive repeat (MAR) domain responsible for initial host cell recognition and attachment likely dictated the tissue tropism of Eimeria parasites. This study aimed to explore the roles of MICs and their associated MARs in conferring site-specific development of E. acervuline, E. maxima, and E. mitis within the host. Immunofluorescence assays revealed that MIC3 of E. acervuline (EaMIC3), MIC3 of E. maxima (EmMIC3), MIC3 of E. mitis (EmiMIC3), MAR3 of EaMIC3 (EaMIC3-MAR3), MAR2 of EmMIC3 (EmMIC3-MAR2), and MAR4 of EmiMIC3 (EmiMIC3-MAR4), exhibited binding capabilities to the specific intestinal tract where these parasites infect. In contrast, the invasion of sporozoites into host intestinal cells could be significantly inhibited by antibodies targeting EaMIC3, EmMIC3, EmiMIC3, EaMIC3-MAR3, EmMIC3-MAR2, and EmiMIC3-MAR4. Substitution experiments involving MAR domains highlighted the crucial roles of EaMIC3-MAR3, EmMIC3-MAR2, and EmiMIC3-MAR4 in governing interactions with host ligands. Furthermore, animal experiments substantiated the significant contribution of EmiMIC3, EmiMIC3-MAR4, and their polyclonal antibodies in conferring protective immunity to Eimeria-affiliated birds. In summary, EaMIC3, EmMIC3, and EmiMIC3 are the underlying factors behind the diverse tissue tropisms exhibited by E. acervuline, E. maxima, and E. mitis, and EaMIC3-MAR3, EmMIC3-MAR2, and EmiMIC3-MAR4 are the major determinants of MIC-mediated tissue tropism of each parasite. The results illuminated the molecular basis of the modes of action of Eimeria MICs, thereby facilitating an understanding and rationalization of the marked differences in tissue tropisms among E. acervuline, E. maxima, and E. mitis.

Dietary alfalfa hay or lipid-soluble alfalfa extract may improve broiler growth, but fiber presence may be detrimental during Eimeria vaccine challenge

Lipid-soluble components in late-cutting alfalfa are linked to beneficial immune and microbiota responses in mouse challenge models; therefore, responses in a comparative poultry Eimeria challenge model were investigated. The study objective was to evaluate performance, immunity, and the cecal microbiota in broilers fed ground hay or lipid-soluble extract from late (fifth) cutting alfalfa during Eimeria challenge. At hatch, 432 Ross 708 broilers were placed in 24 floor pens (18 birds/pen) and assigned to 3 isocaloric/isonitrogenous dietary treatments consisting of control, 5% ground hay, or 0.25% lipid-soluble extract for a 42-d trial divided into 14 d starter, grower, and finisher periods. On d 14, 4 birds/treatment were euthanized to collect blood and cecal contents before half the remainder were inoculated with 10X Merck Coccivac-B52 (Kenilworth, NJ). Tissue samples were collected at 3, 7, 14, and 28 d postinoculation (pi; 4 birds/diet × Eimeria group) with body weight (BW) and feed intake (FI) recorded weekly. Immune populations within peripheral blood mononuclear cells were characterized by flow cytometry while cecal microbial communities were profiled by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Data were normalized when appropriate and analyzed to evaluate the effects of diet, Eimeria challenge, and timepoint (SAS 9.4; P ≤ 0.05). Before challenge, dietary alfalfa hay or extract increased FI 6.9 to 8.0% and increased CD3+ T cells 19.3 to 24.9% compared to control-fed birds (P ≤ 0.007). Alfalfa did not significantly affect post-Eimeria performance, but Eimeria-challenged birds fed hay showed the greatest numeric reduction in final BW compared to their unchallenged counterparts (0.17 kg) vs. control and extract-fed birds (0.02-0.04 kg). Immune cell changes did not indicate recruitment from peripheral blood to local infection sites; however, alfalfa hay may have accelerated Bu-1+ B cell development by 7 d in unchallenged birds (P < 0.0001). During Eimeria-challenge, dietary alfalfa extract preserved alpha diversity measures related to species richness (P ≤ 0.007). Collectively, these results indicate potential benefits of feeding lipid-soluble extract from late cutting alfalfa to broilers during Eimeria challenge.

Natural Magnolol ameliorates coccidiosis infected with Eimeria tenella by affecting antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and gut microbiota of chicks

Magnolol, a natural extract from magnolia officinalis, has received growing interest in its bioactive properties such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial activities. Nevertheless, there is little research on Magnolol in the treatment of parasitic infections currently. Eimeria tenella (E. tenella) infection causes damage to epithelial cells and cecal mucosa, resulting in increased intestinal permeability, which is pretty detrimental to the balance of the intestinal microenvironment. However, at present, in the treatment of chicken coccidiosis, the abuse of antibiotics is quite serious, which has brought losses and harms to the chicken farming industry that cannot be ignored. In this study, based on the excellent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of Magnolol, we proved that it does have a desirable therapeutic potential on chicks infected with E. tenella. Actually, the results showed that the clinical symptoms of the chicks infected with E. tenella were relieved and their growth performance was restored by Magnolol treatment. Furthermore, Magnolol improved the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of chicks. Meanwhile, the Magnolol reversed the imbalance of the intestinal microbiota of sick chicks, which recovered the diversity, promoted the potential beneficial bacteria, and inhabited the potential pathogenic bacteria. Overall, Magnolol may be an alternative to chemical drugs that are effective in treating E. tenella infections.

Impact of a direct-fed microbial supplementation on intestinal permeability and immune response in broiler chickens during a coccidia challenge

Maintaining intestinal health supports optimal gut function and influences overall performance of broilers. Microlife® Prime (MLP) contains a unique combination of four strains of Bacillus spp. selected to support a healthy gut which may improve performance. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of MLP supplementation on intestinal health and immunity of broilers challenged with a mixed coccidia infection during peak [0 to 6-day post-infection (dpi)] and recovery phases (6 to 13 dpi). A total of 120 male, 4 days-old Ross 708, broiler chicks were allotted to 3 treatment groups (8 replicate cages; 5 birds/cage) in a randomized complete block design. Treatments included a non-challenge (NEG), a coccidia challenge (POS), and coccidia challenge fed MLP (5 × 105 CFU/g of diet). Diets were corn-soybean meal-based. At 11 days of age, all birds, except for NEG, were orally gavaged with 15 doses (3 × the recommended commercial dose). On 6, 9, and 13 dpi, birds were orally gavaged with fluorescein isothiocyanate conjugate dextran (FITC-d). Plasma and mid-jejunum tissues were collected 2 h later. On 6 dpi, duodenal lesions from 2 birds/cage were scored and droppings were collected for oocyst enumeration. Body weight gain (BWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated over the experimental period. Data were analyzed with GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. During the peak phase, POS birds had reduced BWG (23%) and FCR (15%) compared to NEG birds (P < 0.05), while birds fed MLP had similar BWG (209 and 208 g) and FCR (1.17 and 1.21) compared to NEG (P > 0.05). On 6 dpi, POS birds had higher lesion scores and oocyst shedding, 2 × increase in serum FITC-d, and higher jejunum IL-10, and IFN-γ mRNA compared to NEG (P < 0.05). Birds fed MLP had reduced plasma FITC-d compared to POS birds (P < 0.05) and similar IL-10 and IFN-γ mRNA. On 13 dpi, birds fed MLP had lower plasma FITC-d, jejunum IL-10 and IFN-γ mRNA compared to POS birds (P < 0.05), but similar IL-10 to NEG birds (P > 0.05). This study confirms MLP improves intestinal health and positively modulates mucosal immune response post-coccidia challenge.

The efficacy of polyphenols as an antioxidant agent: An updated review

Global production of the two major poultry products, meat and eggs, has increased quickly. This, in turn, indicates both the relatively low cost and the customers' desire for these secure and high-quality products. Natural feed additives have become increasingly popular to preserve and enhance the health and productivity of poultry and livestock. We consume a lot of polyphenols, which are a kind of micronutrient. These are phytochemicals with positive effects on cardiovascular, cognitive, anti-inflammatory, detoxifying, anti-tumor, anti-pathogen, a catalyst for growth, and immunomodulating functions, among extra health advantages. Furthermore, high quantities of polyphenols have unknown and occasionally unfavorable impacts on the digestive tract health, nutrient assimilation, the activity of digestive enzymes, vitamin and mineral assimilation, the performance of the laying hens, and the quality of the eggs. This review clarifies the numerous sources, categories, biological functions, potential limitations on usage, and effects of polyphenols on poultry performance, egg composition, exterior and interior quality traits.

Does the Use of Different Types of Probiotics Possess Detoxification Properties Against Aflatoxins Contamination in Rabbit Diets?

The present work was carried out to study the ability of five probiotics on the in vitro degradation of Aflatoxins B1 (AFB1). The best results of in vitro were tested on the detoxification of AFB1 in rabbits. A total of 40 growing New Zealand White (NZW) male rabbits were assigned to five experimental groups. Animals were fed the following diets: basal diet (control), basal diet contaminated with 300 ppb AFB1, basal diet contaminated with 300 ppb AFB1. + probiotic 3 (0.5 g/kg diet), basal diet contaminated with 300 ppb AFB1 + ajowan (0.5 g/kg diet), and basal diet contaminated with 300 ppb AFB1 + probiotic 3 (0.5 g/kg diet) + ajowan (0.5 g/kg diet). Live body weight significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in rabbits fed AFB1 contaminated diet compared to the control rabbits. All additives improved (P < 0.05) the live body weight. The best improvement occurred with probiotics + ajowan. The addition of probiotics increased (P < 0.05) daily body weight gain in all weeks except the first week. Adding ajowan or ajowan + probiotic led to a significant (P < 0.05) increase in live body weight gain and feed intake compared to rabbits fed AFB1 alone. The digestion coefficients of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), crude fiber (CF), ether extract (EE), nitrogen-free extract (NFE), and digestible crude protein (DCP) significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in rabbits fed AFB1 contaminated diet. All additives improved (P < 0.05) the digestibility coefficients of DM, OM, EE, CF, NFE, and total digested nutrients (TDN)%. The best improvement occurred with probiotics + ajowan. Concentrations of serum total protein, albumin and globulin significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in rabbits fed AFB1 contaminated diet compared with the control rabbits. In conclusion, the addition of probiotic 3 (AVI-5-BAC) + ajowan could be recommended to eliminate the toxicity of AFB1 and improve growth performance criteria in rabbits.

Transcriptomic, 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid and network pharmacology analyses shed light on the anticoccidial mechanism of green tea polyphenols against Eimeria tenella infection in Wuliangshan black-boned chickens

BACKGROUND

Eimeria tenella is an obligate intracellular parasitic protozoan that invades the chicken cecum and causes coccidiosis, which induces acute lesions and weight loss. Elucidating the anticoccidial mechanism of action of green tea polyphenols could aid the development of anticoccidial drugs and resolve the problem of drug resistance in E. tenella.

METHODS

We constructed a model of E. tenella infection in Wuliangshan black-boned chickens, an indigenous breed of Yunnan Province, China, to study the efficacy of green tea polyphenols against the infection. Alterations in gene expression and in the microbial flora in the cecum were analyzed by ribonucleic acid (RNA) sequencing and 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequencing. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to verify the host gene expression data obtained by RNA sequencing. Network pharmacology and molecular docking were used to clarify the interactions between the component green tea polyphenols and the targeted proteins; potential anticoccidial herbs were also analyzed.

RESULTS

Treatment with the green tea polyphenols led to a reduction in the lesion score and weight loss of the chickens induced by E. tenella infection. The expression of matrix metalloproteinase 7 (MMP7), MMP1, nitric oxide synthase 2 and ephrin type-A receptor 2 was significantly altered in the E. tenella infection plus green tea polyphenol-treated group and in the E. tenella infection group compared with the control group; these genes were also predicted targets of tea polyphenols. Furthermore, the tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin gallate acted on most of the targets, and the molecular docking analysis showed that it has good affinity with interferon induced with helicase C domain 1 protein. 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing showed that the green tea polyphenols had a regulatory effect on changes in the fecal microbiota induced by E. tenella infection. In total, 171 herbs were predicted to act on two or three targets in MMP7, MMP1, nitric oxide synthase 2 and ephrin type-A receptor 2.

CONCLUSIONS

Green tea polyphenols can directly or indirectly regulate host gene expression and alter the growth of microbiota. The results presented here shed light on the mechanism of action of green tea polyphenols against E. tenella infection in chickens, and have implications for the development of novel anticoccidial products.

Effects of Anticoccidial Vaccination and Taraxacum officinale Extract on the Growth Performance, Biochemical Parameters, Immunity, and Intestinal Morphology of Eimeria-Challenged Chickens

A total of 160 Ross 308 male chickens were used in a 2 × 2 factorial design to examine the effects of anticoccidial vaccination (ACV; lack or 1× dose recommended by the manufacturer) and dietary supplementation with Taraxacum officinale (dandelion) extract (DE; with or without) on growth performance, immunity, biochemical parameters, and intestinal morphology in broiler chickens challenged with Eimeria spp. At 20 days of age, all birds were challenged with a 25× dose of ACV, including Eimeria acervulina, E. maxima, E. mitis, and E. tenella. No interaction between ACV and DE was observed in terms of growth performance. Vaccinated birds showed increased feed intake (FI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) during the 11-20 day period. Meanwhile, DE supplementation led to decreased FI and body weight gain (BWG) during the 1-10 day period. ACV effectively induced immunity against Eimeria, as evidenced by reduced oocyst shedding and less intestinal lesions, decreased levels of pro-inflammatory interleukin-6, and improved BWG during both the post infection (PI) period (21-35 days) and the entire growth period. DE supplementation lowered FCR and increased BWG during the 35-42 day period, increased the concentration of butyric acid in the cecal digesta, and lowered oocyst shedding PI. In vaccinated birds, DE elevated levels of plasma total protein and immunoglobulin M, and influenced tight junction proteins zonula occludens-1 and claudin-3, indicating a more robust epithelial barrier. DE also lowered alanine aminotransferase activity in unvaccinated birds. Both ACV and DE independently improved intestinal morphology in the jejunum, decreasing crypt depth and increasing the villus height-to-crypt ratio. These findings suggest that both ACV and DE could be effective strategies for managing coccidiosis in broiler chickens.

Analysis of authorized coccidiostats in chicken feces and environmental water by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry based on dispersive solid-phase extraction and lyophilization

A simple, sensitive, and efficient method based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was developed for the determination of 8 coccidiostats in chicken feces and environmental water (including sewage, pond water, and lake water) surrounding the farm. Target analytes in chicken feces were extracted with 2% acetic acid in acetonitrile solution, followed by a dispersive solid-phase extraction (DSPE) cleanup step using the mixture of PSA and C18 adsorbents. Environmental water samples were pretreated using a lyophilization approach. Analysis was carried out on a UPLC-MS/MS with the combination of methanol and 0.1% formic acid aqueous solution as the mobile phase under multiple reaction monitoring in positive and negative ionization modes. Results showed that 8 coccidiostats were linear with correlation coefficients higher than 0.99. Method validation was performed using fortified samples, reaching satisfactory recoveries of 75.9%-97.8% in chicken feces and 71.9%-108.2% in environmental water. Limits of detection for 8 analytes in chicken feces and environmental water were 0.03∼2 µg/kg and 0.005∼1 µg/L, respectively. Matrix effects were calculated and strong signal suppression (>50%) for some coccidiostats was observed. The developed method was successfully applied to analyze coccidiostats in chicken feces and environmental water collected from local chicken farms.

Ameliorative avian gut environment and bird productivity through the application of safe antibiotics alternatives: a comprehensive review

The avian digestive tract is an important system for converting ingested food into the nutrients their bodies need for maintenance, growth, and reproduction (meat, table eggs, and fertile eggs). Therefore, preserving digestive system integrity is crucial to bird health and productivity. As an alternative to antibiotics, the world has recently turned to the use of natural products to enhance avian development, intestinal health, and production. Therefore, the primary goal of this review is to explain the various characteristics of the avian digestive tract and how to enhance its performance with natural, safe feed additives such as exogenous enzymes, organic acids, photogenic products, amino acids, prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, and herbal extracts. In conclusion, the composition of the gut microbiome can be influenced by a number of circumstances, and this has important consequences for the health and productivity of birds. To better understand the connection between pathogens, the variety of therapies available, and the microbiome of the gut, additional research needs to be carried out.

Bioactive Compounds and In Vitro Antioxidant and Anticoccidial Activities of Opuntia ficus-indica Flower Extracts

The objective of the present study is to identify the biochemical compounds extracted from OFI flowers using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and to evaluate their in vitro antioxidant activities and anticoccidial effects on the destruction of Eimeria oocysts isolated from naturally infected chickens. A domestic microwave was used with a refrigerant to condense the vapors generated during the extraction. The flavonoid and phenolic compound contents of the OFI flowers were determined according to standard methods. DPPH radical and H2O2 scavenging capacities were used to assess the antioxidant activity. Regarding the anticoccidial activity, the Eimeria spp. oocysts used were isolated from the fresh feces of infected broilers and were determined in triplicate by incubation at an ambient temperature for 24 h. The results highlighted the considerable influence of the optimized acetone concentration, ratio, irradiation time, and microwave power parameters on the phenolic content and antioxidant activities. Our results revealed significant matches between the predicted and experimental values of the models. Molecular analysis revealed the presence of several biophenol classes such as quercetin, isorhamnetin 3-O-rutinoside, and quercetin-3-O-rutinoside. OFI flower extracts inhibited sporulation and damaged the morphology of Eimeria oocysts compared with normal sporulated Eimeria oocysts containing sporocysts. In conclusion, the optimized conditions were validated and found to fit very well with the experimental values. These findings suggest that the flowers of OFI should be considered sources of antioxidants. The results of the present study revealed that OFI flower extracts have anticoccidial activities against Eimeria-spp.-induced infection in broiler chickens.

What Do We Know about Surface Proteins of Chicken Parasites Eimeria?

Poultry is the first source of animal protein for human consumption. In a changing world, this sector is facing new challenges, such as a projected increase in demand, higher standards of food quality and safety, and reduction of environmental impact. Chicken coccidiosis is a highly widespread enteric disease caused by Eimeria spp. which causes significant economic losses to the poultry industry worldwide; however, the impact on family poultry holders or backyard production-which plays a key role in food security in small communities and involves mainly rural women-has been little explored. Coccidiosis disease is controlled by good husbandry measures, chemoprophylaxis, and/or live vaccination. The first live vaccines against chicken coccidiosis were developed in the 1950s; however, after more than seven decades, none has reached the market. Current limitations on their use have led to research in next-generation vaccines based on recombinant or live-vectored vaccines. Next-generation vaccines are required to control this complex parasitic disease, and for this purpose, protective antigens need to be identified. In this review, we have scrutinised surface proteins identified so far in Eimeria spp. affecting chickens. Most of these surface proteins are anchored to the parasite membrane by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) molecule. The biosynthesis of GPIs, as well as the role of currently identified surface proteins and interest as vaccine candidates has been summarised. The potential role of surface proteins in drug resistance and immune escape and how these could limit the efficacy of control strategies was also discussed.

Matrine provides a protective effect against Eimeria tenella challenge by alleviating intestinal barrier damage

As a virulent and harmful protozoan, Eimeria tenella (E.tenella) causes harmful chicken coccidiosis, inducing high economic losses in the chicken industry. The management of the coccidial disease has been greatly hampered by drug resistance. Matrine is an active ingredient from Ku Shen (Radix Sophorae Flavescentis), a typical pesticide in chinese medicine. The aim of this study was to examine matrine's possible effectiveness in the treatment of coccidiosis and its protective function on the intestinal barrier. The anticoccidial index (ACI), the levels of anti-oxidant indexes, and secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) were detected. The levels of mRNA and protein expression of Occludin, ZO-1, and Claudin-1 were determined through quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis. Matrine exhibited a moderate ACI value, and ACI values of 122.51 and 143.42 corresponded to 5 and 10 mg/kg of matrine, respectively. Compared to the infective control group, the expression of tight junction proteins significantly increased in the matrine-treatment group by RT-PCR and IHC analysis, which are essential for the mucosal immune system and the intestinal barrier. Besides, the matrine-treatment group showed a more complete intestinal structure, fewer bleeding spots, and coccidian by histopathology analysis. We also found that, matrine significantly enhanced the antioxidant ability and significantly increased the content of sIgA. Above all, matrine was considered an efficient drug against E.tenella by the anti-oxidant efficacy, and the ability to protect the composition and function of the intestinal barrier.

Botanicals: A promising approach for controlling cecal coccidiosis in poultry

Avian species have long struggled with the problem of coccidiosis, a disease that affects various parts of the intestine, including the anterior gut, midgut, and hindgut. Among different types of coccidiosis, cecal coccidiosis is particularly dangerous to avian species. Chickens and turkeys are commercial flocks; thus, their parasites have remained critical due to their economic importance. High rates of mortality and morbidity are observed in both chickens and turkeys due to cecal coccidiosis. Coccidiostats and coccidiocidal chemicals have traditionally been added to feed and water to control coccidiosis. However, after the EU banned their use because of issues of resistance and public health, alternative methods are being explored. Vaccines are also being used, but their efficacy and cost-effectiveness remain as challenges. Researchers are attempting to find alternatives, and among the alternatives, botanicals are a promising choice. Botanicals contain multiple active compounds such as phenolics, saponins, terpenes, sulfur compounds, etc., which can kill sporozoites and oocysts and stop the replication of Eimeria. These botanicals are primarily used as anticoccidials due to their antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities. Because of the medicinal properties of botanicals, some commercial products have also been developed. However, further research is needed to confirm their pharmacological effects, mechanisms of action, and methods of concentrated preparation. In this review, an attempt has been made to summarize the plants that have the potential to act as anticoccidials and to explain the mode of action of different compounds found within them.

Evaluation of a dacitic (rhyolitic) tuff breccia use on performance, inflammatory, and antioxidant responses in broilers mildly challenged with Eimeria spp

The objective of the study was to investigate the effects of a dacitic tuff breccia (DTB) on Eimeria-infected broilers. A total of 600 one-day-old Cobb 500 male chickens were randomly assigned to 5 treatments with 10 replicates of 12 birds. Treatments were: an unchallenged control (UC), a challenged (CC) control (0% DTB), and 3 challenged groups with 0.125, 0.25, or 0.5% DTB. At d 14, birds in the CC and DTB groups were orally gavaged with mixed Eimeria spp., while the UC received water. Growth performance was evaluated during prechallenge, challenge, and postchallenge periods (0-14 d; 14-20 d; and 20-26 d, respectively). Gastrointestinal permeability was measured at 5 days postinfection (dpi). Intestinal histology and nutrient digestibility of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), and ileal digestible energy (IDE) were measured at 6 dpi. Liver activity of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) was determined at 6 dpi, and concentrations of reduced (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) were analyzed at 6 and 12 dpi. Data were analyzed using a linear mixed model analysis and Tukey's test (P ≤ 0.05). From 0 to 14 d, similar average daily gain (ADG) and average daily feed intake (ADFI, P > 0.05) were observed. Gain:feed ratio (GF) was higher in 0.125, 0.25, and 0.5% of DTB than the CC and UC (P < 0.001). From 14 to 20 d, the UC had the highest ADG, ADFI, and GF (P < 0.001). At 5 dpi, intestinal permeability was higher in the challenged groups than the UC. Additionally, the UC showed the highest apparent ileal digestibility of CP, whereas 0.125% DTB had higher CP digestibility than the CC and 0.5% DTB (P < 0.001). At 6 dpi, 0.125% DTB increased GSH-Px activity compared to the CC, 0.5% DTB, and UC (P < 0.001). At 12 dpi, 0.125% DTB showed increased GSH concentration compared to the CC, 0.25% DTB, and 0.5% DTB (P < 0.01). The mild coccidia infection negatively impacted growth performance, apparent ileal nutrient digestibility, intestinal histology, and gastrointestinal integrity in broilers. The use of 0.125% DTB exhibited potential in improving antioxidant responses, apparent ileal digestibility of CP, and growth performance.

An Investigation of the Antiviral Potential of Phytocompounds against Avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus through Template-Based Molecular Docking and Molecular Dynamics Simulation Analysis

Vaccination is widely used to control Infectious Bronchitis in poultry; however, the limited cross-protection and safety issues associated with these vaccines can lead to vaccination failures. Keeping these limitations in mind, the current study explored the antiviral potential of phytocompounds against the Infectious Bronchitis virus using in silico approaches. A total of 1300 phytocompounds derived from fourteen botanicals were screened for their potential ability to inhibit the main protease, papain-like protease or RNA-dependent RNA–polymerase of the virus. The study identified Methyl Rosmarinate, Cianidanol, Royleanone, and 6,7-Dehydroroyleanone as dual-target inhibitors against any two of the key proteins. At the same time, 7-alpha-Acetoxyroyleanone from Rosmarinus officinalis was found to be a multi-target protein inhibitor against all three proteins. The potential multi-target inhibitor was subjected to molecular dynamics simulations to assess the stability of the protein–ligand complexes along with the corresponding reference ligands. The findings specified stable interactions of 7-alpha-Acetoxyroyleanone with the protein targets. The results based on the in silico study indicate that the phytocompounds can potentially inhibit the essential proteins of the Infectious Bronchitis virus; however, in vitro and in vivo studies are required for validation. Nevertheless, this study is a significant step in exploring the use of botanicals in feed to control Infectious Bronchitis infections in poultry.

Dietary tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil as alternative to antibiotics alleviates experimentally induced Eimeria tenella challenge in Japanese quails

Coccidiosis is one of the most common infectious diseases seen in Japanese quails. The current study was conducted to evaluate the impact of tea tree essential oil (TTEO) on growth performance and intestinal health of quails in response to Eimeria tenella challenge. A total of 250 Japanese quails were divided into five treatments: untreated uninfected (negative control); untreated infected (positive control); infected + Amprolium; infected and 1% TTEO; infected and 2% TTEO. Except negative control, all groups were orally dosed with 5 × 10⁴ sporulated oocysts of E. tenella. The results revealed that supplementation of 1% TTEO and treatment of amprolium improved feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion ratio in infected quails compared to the positive control. Similarly, lesion score and mortality was significantly (p < 0.01) reduced in quails supplemented with 2% TTEO and amprolium treated birds. Moreover, oocysts counts and histological features of caecum in infected birds were reversed in 1% TTEO and amprolium treatment. The histological findings of amprolium and 1% TTEO supplemented quails showed intact intestinal villi with mild sloughed epithelium. In conclusion, 1% TTEO can be safely used to control coccidiosis in Japanese quails as natural effective compound.

Effects of green tea phytosome on growth performance and intestinal integrity under coccidiosis infection challenge in broilers

This research examined the effects of feeding phytosomal green tea on broilers infected with coccidia. To provide phytosome, green tea extract was loaded into soy lecithin. Groups of chicks included uninfected and untreated control (NC), infected and untreated control (PC), infected and treated with salinomycin control (SC), infected and treated with 300 and 400 mL of green tea extract (GTE300, GTE400), infected and treated with 200, 300, 400 and 500 mL of green tea phytosome (GTP200, GTP300, GTP400, and GTP500). At 14-days posthatch, chickens were orally gavaged, except the NC group with a coccidia vaccine 30 times larger than the approved dose. Body weight (BW), feed intake (FI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were determined at 7, 14, 20, 28, 35, and 42 d. The characteristics of the carcass, internal organs and intestinal morphology were assessed on d 42. Applying overdose of coccidiosis vaccine showed experimental Eimeria infection, led to decrease in FI and BW, and increased FCR compared to PC group (P < 0.001). Meanwhile salinomycin, green tea extract, and green tea phytosome compensated the negative effects of Eimeria infection on growth performance. The treatments did not affect carcass, breast, and thigh relative weights. Interestingly, abdominal fat percent was significantly lower in chickens fed GTP300, GTP400, and GTP500 than in those fed GTE300, GTE300, and GTP200 (P < 0.0001). In comparison to the basal diet plus green tea extract forms and NC groups, the PC group increased the relative weights of the liver, spleen, bursa, and pancreas (P < 0.05). The highest values of villus height and villus height to crypt ratio were obtained in duodenum, jejunum and ileum in GTP300 group (P < 0.0001), while, villi diameter in duodenum and ileum decreased the most in GTP300 and GTP500, respectively (P < 0.0001). Consequently, as natural anticoccidial drug delivery systems, 300 mL of green tea phytosome can be introduced as the optimal dose to maximize the benefits of phytosome for intestinal integrity and reduce the consumption of green tea extract.

Evaluation of therapeutic effects of an herbal mixture (Echinacea purpurea and Glycyrrhiza glabra) for treatment of clinical coccidiosis in broilers

BACKGROUND

Avian coccidiosis is thought to be one of the most expensive infectious diseases in the poultry industry.

OBJECTIVES

Safe and alternative anti-coccidial drugs are herbal extracts because they do not result in tissue residue and drug resistance. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the anti-coccidial effect of the herbal mixture, a complex of two plants (Echinacea purpurea, Glycyrrhiza glabra) in broiler chickens in comparison with toltrazuril.

METHODS

One hundred twenty broiler chickens were used in this experiment and divided into 4 equally numbered groups. All the groups, except Group D, were experimentally infected with mixed Eimeria spp. (E. Tenella, E. maxima, E. necatrix and E. brunetti) on day 14. Group A treated with an herbal mixture [Glycyrrhiza glabra Extract 5% (standardised to 5.4% glycyrrhizic acid) and Echinacea purpurea Extract 2% (standardised to 4% total phenolic content based on chlorogenic acid); Coxinin-EC^® ; Shamim Teb Sepid Giti]. Group B treated with toltrazuril. Group C was experimentally infected with mixed Eimeria spp. but they did not have any treatment, this group was our positive control. Performance indices, faecal oocyst excretion, and intestinal lesion score were determined during the experiment.

RESULTS

Positive control group had the poorest results and more mortality than other groups. Group D was not infected and was healthy all the experiment period. Treatment with herbal complex significantly reduced the negative performance and pathogenic effects associated with Eimeria spp. at a level that was comparable with toltrazuril.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, the anti-coccidial activity of the studied herbal complex suggests its use as an alternative anti-coccidial agent to chemotherapeutic drugs for controlling coccidiosis in poultry.

HIGHLIGHTS

-Coccidiosis is an important infectious disease that causes serious financial loss to the poultry industry. -Chemical anti-coccidial drugs and vaccines are the main control strategies to combat the disease. However, these tools have some constraints. -Herbal remedies are suitable alternatives to chemical compounds for control of losses associated with coccidiosis in poultry. -An herbal mixture (Echinacea purpurea, Glycyrrhiza glabra) has promising effects for controlling of coccidiosis in broiler chickens.