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Skiendzielewski K, Burch T, Stokdyk J, McGinnis S, McLoughlin S, Firnstahl A, Spencer S, Borchardt M, Murphy HM. Two risk assessments: Evaluating the use of indicator HF183 Bacteroides versus pathogen measurements for modelling recreational illness risks in an urban watershed. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 259:121852. [PMID: 38889662 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the performance of HF183 Bacteroides for estimating pathogen exposures during recreational water activities. We compared the use of Bacteroides-based exposure assessment to exposure assessment that relied on pathogen measurements. We considered two types of recreational water sites: those impacted by combined sewer overflows (CSOs) and those not impacted by CSOs. Samples from CSO-impacted and non-CSO-impacted urban creeks were analysed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) for HF183 Bacteroides and eight human gastrointestinal pathogens. Exposure assessment was conducted two ways for each type of site (CSO-impacted vs. non-CSO impacted): 1) by estimating pathogen concentrations from HF183 Bacteroides concentrations using published ratios of HF183 to pathogens in sewage and 2) by estimating pathogen concentrations from qPCR measurements. QMRA (quantitative microbial risk assessment) was then conducted for swimming, wading, and fishing exposures. Overall, mean risk estimates varied from 0.27 to 53 illnesses per 1,000 recreators depending on exposure assessment, site, activity, and norovirus dose-response model. HF183-based exposure assessment identified CSO-impacted sites as higher risk, and the recommended HF183 risk-based threshold of 525 genomic copies per 100 mL was generally protective of public health at the CSO-impacted sites but was not as protective at the non-CSO-impacted sites. In the context of our urban watershed, HF183-based exposure assessment over- and under-estimated risk relative to exposure assessment based on pathogen measurements, and the etiology of predicted pathogen-specific illnesses differed significantly. Across all sites, the HF183 model overestimated risk for norovirus, adenovirus, and Campylobacter jejuni, and it underestimated risk for E. coli and Cryptosporidium. To our knowledge, this study is the first to directly compare health risk estimates using HF183 and empirical pathogen measurements from the same waterways. Our work highlights the importance of site-specific hazard identification and exposure assessment to decide whether HF183 is applicable for monitoring risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Skiendzielewski
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Lab (WHAM Lab), Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Temple University College of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
| | - T Burch
- US Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Environmentally Integrated Dairy Management Research Unit, Marshfield, WI, United States
| | - J Stokdyk
- US Geological Survey Upper Midwest Water Science Center, Marshfield, WI, United States
| | - S McGinnis
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Lab (WHAM Lab), Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Temple University College of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - S McLoughlin
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Lab (WHAM Lab), Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Temple University College of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - A Firnstahl
- US Geological Survey Upper Midwest Water Science Center, Marshfield, WI, United States
| | - S Spencer
- US Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Environmentally Integrated Dairy Management Research Unit, Marshfield, WI, United States
| | - M Borchardt
- US Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Environmentally Integrated Dairy Management Research Unit, Marshfield, WI, United States
| | - H M Murphy
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Lab (WHAM Lab), Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Temple University College of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Lab (WHAM Lab), Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.
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Durigan M, Ewing-Peeples L, Almeria S, Balan KV, Grocholl J, Irizawa S, Mammel M. Detection of Cyclospora cayetanensis in Food and Water Samples: Optimized Protocols for Specific and Sensitive Molecular Methods from a Regulatory Agency Perspective. J Food Prot 2024; 87:100291. [PMID: 38701974 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfp.2024.100291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
Cyclospora cayetanensis is a coccidian parasite of the phylum Apicomplexa that causes cyclosporiasis, a human-specific gastrointestinal disease. Unlike most enteric pathogens, C. cayetanensis does not infect via direct fecal-oral transmission between humans because shed oocysts must be exposed to environmental triggers prior to becoming infectious. The development of specific and sensitive detection methods for C. cayetanensis is crucial to effectively address data gaps and provide regulatory support during outbreak investigations. In this study, new more specific molecular markers for the detection of C. cayetanensis were developed based on updated genomic databases of Apicomplexa mitochondrial sequences. Novel alternative reagents and supplies, as well as optimization protocols, were tested in spiked produce and agricultural water samples. The selected Mit1C primers and probe combined showed at least 13 mismatches to other related species. The new optimized qualitative real-time PCR assay with modifications to sample processing and replacement of discontinued items produced results comparable to the previously validated methods. In conclusion, the new optimized qualitative Mit1C real-time PCR assay demonstrated an increase in its specificity in comparison to other detection methods previously published, while it showed to be robust and as sensitive as the previously validated method at the FDA. This study has also expanded the array of PCR reagents that can be used to detect C. cayetanensis in produce and agricultural water samples and provided several improvements to the method for detection in agricultural water including replacements for discontinued items and a new dialysis filter for water filtration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauricio Durigan
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Division of Virulence Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA.
| | - Laura Ewing-Peeples
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Division of Virulence Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Sonia Almeria
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Division of Virulence Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Kannan V Balan
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Division of Virulence Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - John Grocholl
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Division of Virulence Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA; Goldbelt C6, Chesapeake, VA 23320, USA
| | - Sachi Irizawa
- Joint Institute for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (JIFSAN), University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Mark Mammel
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Division of Virulence Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
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Hachimi O, Falender R, Davis G, Wafula RV, Sutton M, Bancroft J, Cieslak P, Kelly C, Kaya D, Radniecki T. Evaluation of molecular-based methods for the detection and quantification of Cryptosporidium spp. in wastewater. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 947:174219. [PMID: 38917908 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium poses significant public health risks as a cause of waterborne disease worldwide. Clinical surveillance of cryptosporidiosis is largely underreported due to the asymptomatic and mildly symptomatic infections, clinical misdiagnoses, and barriers to access testing. Wastewater surveillance overcomes these limitations and could serve as an effective tool for identifying cryptosporidiosis at the population level. Despite its potential, the lack of standardized wastewater surveillance methods for Cryptosporidium spp. challenges implementation design and the comparability between studies. Thus, this study compared and contrasted Cryptosporidium wastewater surveillance methods for concentrating wastewater oocysts, extracting oocyst DNA, and detecting Cryptosporidium genetic markers. The evaluated concentration methods included electronegative membrane filtration, Envirocheck HV capsule filtration, centrifugation, and Nanotrap Microbiome Particles, with and without additional immunomagnetic separation purification (except for the Nanotrap Microbiome Particles). Oocyst DNA extraction by either the DNeasy Powersoil Pro kit and the QIAamp DNA Mini kit were evaluated and the impact of bead beating and freeze-thaw pretreatments on DNA recoveries was assessed. Genetic detection via qPCR assays targeting either the Cryptosporidium 18S rRNA gene or the Cryptosporidium oocyst wall protein gene were tested. Oocyst recovery percentages were highest for centrifugation (39-77 %), followed by the Nanotrap Microbiome Particles (24 %), electronegative filtration with a PBST elution (22 %), and Envirocheck HV capsule filtration (13 %). Immunomagnetic separation purification was found to be unsuitable due to interference from the wastewater matrix. Bead-beating pretreatment enhanced DNA recoveries from both the DNeasy Powersoil Pro kit (314 gc/μL DNA) and the QIAamp DNA Mini kit (238 gc/μL DNA). In contrast, freeze-thaw pretreatment reduced DNA recoveries to under 92 gc/μL DNA, likely through DNA degradation. Finally, while both qPCR assays were specific to Cryptosporidium spp., the 18S rRNA assay had a 5-fold lower detection limit and could detect a wider range of Cryptosporidium spp. than the Cryptosporidium oocyst wall protein assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oumaima Hachimi
- School of Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Engineering, Oregon State University, 116 Johnson Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Rebecca Falender
- Oregon Health Authority, 800 NE Oregon St, Portland, OR 97232, USA
| | - Gabriel Davis
- School of Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Engineering, Oregon State University, 116 Johnson Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Rispa Vranka Wafula
- School of Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Engineering, Oregon State University, 116 Johnson Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Melissa Sutton
- Oregon Health Authority, 800 NE Oregon St, Portland, OR 97232, USA
| | - June Bancroft
- Oregon Health Authority, 800 NE Oregon St, Portland, OR 97232, USA
| | - Paul Cieslak
- Oregon Health Authority, 800 NE Oregon St, Portland, OR 97232, USA
| | - Christine Kelly
- School of Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Engineering, Oregon State University, 116 Johnson Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Devrim Kaya
- School of Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Engineering, Oregon State University, 116 Johnson Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Tyler Radniecki
- School of Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Engineering, Oregon State University, 116 Johnson Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
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Gitter A, Gidley M, Mena KD, Ferguson A, Sinigalliano C, Bonacolta A, Solo-Gabriele H. Integrating microbial source tracking with quantitative microbial risk assessment to evaluate site specific risk based thresholds at two South Florida beaches. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1210192. [PMID: 37901823 PMCID: PMC10602684 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1210192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) can be used to evaluate health risks associated with recreational beach use. This study developed a site-specific risk assessment using a novel approach that combined quantitative PCR-based measurement of microbial source tracking (MST) genetic markers (human, dog, and gull fecal bacteria) with a QMRA analysis of potential pathogen risk. Water samples (n = 24) from two recreational beaches were collected and analyzed for MST markers as part of a broader Beach Exposure And Child Health Study that examined child behavior interactions with the beach environment. We report here the measurements of fecal bacteria MST markers in the environmental DNA extracts of those samples and a QMRA analysis of potential health risks utilizing the results from the MST measurements in the water samples. Human-specific Bacteroides was enumerated by the HF183 Taqman qPCR assay, gull-specific Catellicoccus was enumerated by the Gull2 qPCR assay, and dog-specific Bacteroides was enumerated by the DogBact qPCR assay. Derived reference pathogen doses, calculated from the MST marker concentrations detected in recreational waters, were used to estimate the risk of gastrointestinal illness for both children and adults. Dose-response equations were used to estimate the probability of the risk of infection (Pinf) per a swimming exposure event. Based on the QMRA simulations presented in this study, the GI risk from swimming or playing in water containing a mixture of human and non-human fecal sources appear to be primarily driven by the human fecal source. However, the estimated median GI health risk for both beaches never exceeded the U.S. EPA risk threshold of 32 illnesses per 1,000 recreation events. Our research suggests that utilizing QMRA together with MST can further extend our understanding of potential recreational bather risk by identifying the source contributing the greatest risk in a particular location, therefore informing beach management responses and decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Gitter
- Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center Houston School of Public Health, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Maribeth Gidley
- Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Kristina D. Mena
- Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center Houston School of Public Health, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Alesia Ferguson
- Department of Built Environment, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Christopher Sinigalliano
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Anthony Bonacolta
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Helena Solo-Gabriele
- Department of Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, United States
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Lynch VD, Shaman J. Waterborne Infectious Diseases Associated with Exposure to Tropical Cyclonic Storms, United States, 1996-2018. Emerg Infect Dis 2023; 29:1548-1558. [PMID: 37486189 PMCID: PMC10370842 DOI: 10.3201/eid2908.221906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
In the United States, tropical cyclones cause destructive flooding that can lead to adverse health outcomes. Storm-driven flooding contaminates environmental, recreational, and drinking water sources, but few studies have examined effects on specific infections over time. We used 23 years of exposure and case data to assess the effects of tropical cyclones on 6 waterborne diseases in a conditional quasi-Poisson model. We separately defined storm exposure for windspeed, rainfall, and proximity to the storm track. Exposure to storm-related rainfall was associated with a 48% (95% CI 27%-69%) increase in Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infections 1 week after storms and a 42% (95% CI 22%-62%) in increase Legionnaires' disease 2 weeks after storms. Cryptosporidiosis cases increased 52% (95% CI 42%-62%) during storm weeks but declined over ensuing weeks. Cyclones are a risk to public health that will likely become more serious with climate change and aging water infrastructure systems.
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Chacin-Bonilla L, Santin M. Cyclospora cayetanensis Infection in Developed Countries: Potential Endemic Foci? Microorganisms 2023; 11:540. [PMID: 36985114 PMCID: PMC10058255 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11030540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclospora cayetanensis infection has emerged as a significant public health concern worldwide. Developed countries are generally considered non-endemic for infection. However, sporadic cases and non-travel-related outbreaks of C. cayetanensis infections associated with domestically grown produce are becoming more common in developed countries. Cyclospora cayetanensis has been detected in fresh produce, surface water, wastewater, irrigation water, and soil in these countries, suggesting that the parasite may be more common in areas with advanced sanitation than previously thought and illustrating the potential risk for exposure and indigenous/autochthonous infections. The evidence suggests the possibility of foci of endemicity in developed countries, particularly in communities where sanitary conditions are compromised, and raises transmission issues that require further research to better define the risks for infection, how widespread C. cayetanensis may be in these areas, and to guide interventions against this infection. The main purpose of the present opinion was to evaluate the presence of cyclosporiasis in developed countries, which is a very important and ongoing issue in food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonor Chacin-Bonilla
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clinicas, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo 4001, Venezuela
| | - Monica Santin
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
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Chacin-Bonilla L, Sanchez Y, Cardenas R. Factors associated with Cyclospora infection in a Venezuelan community: extreme poverty and soil transmission relate to cyclosporiasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2023; 117:83-90. [PMID: 35894776 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/trac070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transmission dynamics of Cyclospora cayetanensis in endemic areas and the factors associated with soil contamination remain unclear. The effects of environmental factors on Cyclospora have been insufficiently studied, particularly in South America, thus a Venezuelan community was studied to profile risk factors for infection. METHODS A cross-sectional stool survey of 732 individuals was conducted. For Cyclospora screening, an acid-fast-stained smear of formalin-ethyl acetate concentrate and ultraviolet (UV) epifluorescence examination of a wet mount were used. Water (n=14), soil (n=50) and produce (n=77) samples were collected, processed and examined by UV epifluorescence. Data were analysed using multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS Cyclospora infections were identified in 73 (9.9%) subjects. Variables associated with the infection were age ≤10 y (odds ratio [OR] 14), hut living (OR 5), well water use (OR 18.5), drinking untreated water (OR 7.6), toilet absence (OR 8), having contact with faeces-contaminated soil (OR 4) and poultry exposure (OR 3). Infections (63%) were clustered in 25 huts. Oocysts were identified in 28.6%, 18% and 3.9% of the water, soil and produce samples, respectively. CONCLUSIONS There was an explicit association of Cyclospora infection with extreme poverty and soil transmission reflecting the household socio-economic correlate of cyclosporiasis in this community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonor Chacin-Bonilla
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clinicas, Universidad del Zulia, Apartado Postal 23 Maracaibo 4001-A, Venezuela
| | - Yulaicy Sanchez
- Instituto de Previsión y Asistencia Social del Ministerio de Educación, Laboratorio de Citología. Avenida Cecilio Acosta, Maracaibo 4005, Venezuela
| | - Ricardo Cardenas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clinicas, Universidad del Zulia, Apartado Postal 23 Maracaibo 4001-A, Venezuela
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Suarez P, Alonso JL, Gómez G, Vidal G. Performance of sewage treatment technologies for the removal of Cryptosporidium sp. and Giardia sp.: Toward water circularity. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 324:116320. [PMID: 36183529 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium sp. and Giardia sp. are parasites that cause diseases in the population. Most of parasite diseases regarding the consumption of drinking water polluted with sewage are caused by Cryptosporidium sp. or Giardia sp. it is because of the incomplete disinfection of the wastewater treatment. Therefore, in this work the removal or inactivation efficiency of different treatment technologies presented by around 40 scientific studies was evaluated, with a view to water circularity. For Cryptosporidium sp., we conclude that the most efficient secondary technologies are aerobic technologies, which remove between 0.00 and 2.17 log units (Ulog), with activated sludge presenting the greatest efficiency, and that the tertiary technologies with the greatest removal are those that use ultrasound, which reach removal values of 3.17 Ulog. In the case of Giardia sp., the secondary technologies with the greatest removal are anaerobic technologies, with values between 0.00 and 3.80 Ulog, and the tertiary technologies with the greatest removal are those that combine filtration with UV or a chemical disinfection agent. Despite the removal values obtained, the greatest concern remains detecting and quantifying the infectious forms of both parasites in effluents; therefore, although the technologies perform adequately, discharge effluents must be monitored with more sensitive techniques, above all aiming for circularity of the treated water in a context of the water scarcity that affects some parts of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Suarez
- Environmental Engineering & Biotechnology Group (GIBA-UDEC), Environmental Science Faculty, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, 4070386, Chile
| | - José Luis Alonso
- Instituto de Ingeniería del Agua y Medio Ambiente, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera 14, P.O. Box 46022, Valencia, Spain
| | - Gloria Gómez
- Environmental Engineering & Biotechnology Group (GIBA-UDEC), Environmental Science Faculty, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, 4070386, Chile
| | - Gladys Vidal
- Environmental Engineering & Biotechnology Group (GIBA-UDEC), Environmental Science Faculty, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, 4070386, Chile.
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Development of a Molecular Marker Based on the Mitochondrial Genome for Detection of Cyclospora cayetanensis in Food and Water Samples. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10091762. [PMID: 36144364 PMCID: PMC9504131 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10091762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclospora cayetanensis is a coccidian parasite that causes diarrheal illness outbreaks worldwide. The development of new laboratory methods for detection of C. cayetanensis is of critical importance because of the high potential for environmental samples to be contaminated with a myriad of microorganisms, adversely impacting the specificity when testing samples from various sources using a single molecular assay. In this study, a new sequencing-based method was designed targeting a specific fragment of C. cayetanensis cytochrome oxidase gene and developed as a complementary method to the TaqMan qPCR present in the U.S. FDA BAM Chapter 19b and Chapter 19c. The comparative results between the new PCR protocol and the qPCR for detection of C. cayetanensis in food and water samples provided similar results in both matrices with the same seeding level. The target region and primers in the protocol discussed in this study contain sufficient Cyclospora-specific sequence fidelity as observed by sequence comparison with other Eimeriidae species. The sequence of the PCR product appears to represent a robust target for identifying C. cayetanensis on samples from different sources. Such a sensitive method for detection of C. cayetanensis would add to the target repertoire of qPCR-based screening strategies for food and water samples.
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Díaz-Gavidia C, Barría C, Weller DL, Salgado-Caxito M, Estrada EM, Araya A, Vera L, Smith W, Kim M, Moreno-Switt AI, Olivares-Pacheco J, Adell AD. Humans and Hoofed Livestock Are the Main Sources of Fecal Contamination of Rivers Used for Crop Irrigation: A Microbial Source Tracking Approach. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:768527. [PMID: 35847115 PMCID: PMC9279616 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.768527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Freshwater bodies receive waste, feces, and fecal microorganisms from agricultural, urban, and natural activities. In this study, the probable sources of fecal contamination were determined. Also, antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) were detected in the two main rivers of central Chile. Surface water samples were collected from 12 sampling sites in the Maipo (n = 8) and Maule Rivers (n = 4) every 3 months, from August 2017 until April 2019. To determine the fecal contamination level, fecal coliforms were quantified using the most probable number (MPN) method and the source of fecal contamination was determined by Microbial Source Tracking (MST) using the Cryptosporidium and Giardia genotyping method. Separately, to determine if antimicrobial resistance bacteria (AMB) were present in the rivers, Escherichia coli and environmental bacteria were isolated, and the antibiotic susceptibility profile was determined. Fecal coliform levels in the Maule and Maipo Rivers ranged between 1 and 130 MPN/100-ml, and 2 and 30,000 MPN/100-ml, respectively. Based on the MST results using Cryptosporidium and Giardia host-specific species, human, cattle, birds, and/or dogs hosts were the probable sources of fecal contamination in both rivers, with human and cattle host-specific species being more frequently detected. Conditional tree analysis indicated that coliform levels were significantly associated with the river system (Maipo versus Maule), land use, and season. Fecal coliform levels were significantly (p < 0.006) higher at urban and agricultural sites than at sites immediately downstream of treatment centers, livestock areas, or natural areas. Three out of eight (37.5%) E. coli isolates presented a multidrug-resistance (MDR) phenotype. Similarly, 6.6% (117/1768) and 5.1% (44/863) of environmental isolates, in Maipo and Maule River showed and MDR phenotype. Efforts to reduce fecal discharge into these rivers should thus focus on agriculture and urban land uses as these areas were contributing the most and more frequently to fecal contamination into the rivers, while human and cattle fecal discharges were identified as the most likely source of this fecal contamination by the MST approach. This information can be used to design better mitigation strategies, thereby reducing the burden of waterborne diseases and AMR in Central Chile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constanza Díaz-Gavidia
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Initiative for Collaborative Research on Bacterial Resistance (MICROB-R), Santiago, Chile
| | - Carla Barría
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Initiative for Collaborative Research on Bacterial Resistance (MICROB-R), Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniel L. Weller
- Department of Environmental and Forest Biology, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse, NY, United States
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Marilia Salgado-Caxito
- Millennium Initiative for Collaborative Research on Bacterial Resistance (MICROB-R), Santiago, Chile
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Erika M. Estrada
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Eastern Shore Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Virginia Tech, Painter, Virginia
| | - Aníbal Araya
- Millennium Initiative for Collaborative Research on Bacterial Resistance (MICROB-R), Santiago, Chile
- Grupo de Resistencia Antimicrobiana en Bacterias Patógenas y Ambientales (GRABPA), Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaiso, Chile
| | - Leonardo Vera
- Escuela Ingeniería Ambiental, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Woutrina Smith
- One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Minji Kim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Andrea I. Moreno-Switt
- Millennium Initiative for Collaborative Research on Bacterial Resistance (MICROB-R), Santiago, Chile
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jorge Olivares-Pacheco
- Millennium Initiative for Collaborative Research on Bacterial Resistance (MICROB-R), Santiago, Chile
- Grupo de Resistencia Antimicrobiana en Bacterias Patógenas y Ambientales (GRABPA), Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaiso, Chile
| | - Aiko D. Adell
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Initiative for Collaborative Research on Bacterial Resistance (MICROB-R), Santiago, Chile
- *Correspondence: Aiko D. Adell,
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11
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Fradette MS, Culley AI, Charette SJ. Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in Environmental Water Samples: A Journey into the Past and New Perspectives. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10061175. [PMID: 35744692 PMCID: PMC9228427 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10061175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the major issues linked with producing safe water for consumption is the presence of the parasitic protozoa Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. Since they are both responsible for gastrointestinal illnesses that can be waterborne, their monitoring is crucial, especially in water sources feeding treatment plants. Although their discovery was made in the early 1900s and even before, it was only in 1999 that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published a standardized protocol for the detection of these parasites, modified and named today the U.S. EPA 1623.1 Method. It involves the flow-through filtration of a large volume of the water of interest, the elution of the biological material retained on the filter, the purification of the (oo)cysts, and the detection by immunofluorescence of the target parasites. Since the 1990s, several molecular-biology-based techniques were also developed to detect Cryptosporidium and Giardia cells from environmental or clinical samples. The application of U.S. EPA 1623.1 as well as numerous biomolecular methods are reviewed in this article, and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed guiding the readers, such as graduate students, researchers, drinking water managers, epidemiologists, and public health specialists, through the ever-expanding number of techniques available in the literature for the detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Stéphanie Fradette
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.I.C.); (S.J.C.)
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie et de Bio-Informatique, Faculté des Sciences et Génie, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Centre de Recherche en Aménagement et Développement du Territoire (CRAD), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Correspondence:
| | - Alexander I. Culley
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.I.C.); (S.J.C.)
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie et de Bio-Informatique, Faculté des Sciences et Génie, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Groupe de Recherche en Écologie Buccale (GREB), Faculté de Médecine Dentaire, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Steve J. Charette
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.I.C.); (S.J.C.)
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie et de Bio-Informatique, Faculté des Sciences et Génie, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
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12
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Wang X, Wu T, Oliveira LFS, Zhang D. Sheet, Surveillance, Strategy, Salvage and Shield in global biodefense system to protect the public health and tackle the incoming pandemics. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 822:153469. [PMID: 35093353 PMCID: PMC8799268 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The pandemic of COVID-19 challenges the global health system and raises our concerns on the next waves of other emerging infectious diseases. Considering the lessons from the failure of world's pandemic warning system against COVID-19, many scientists and politicians have mentioned different strategies to improve global biodefense system, among which Sheet, Surveillance, Strategy, Salvage and Shield (5S) are frequently discussed. Nevertheless, the current focus is mainly on the optimization and management of individual strategy, and there are limited attempts to combine the five strategies as an integral global biodefense system. Sheet represents the biosafety datasheet for biohazards in natural environment and human society, which helps our deeper understanding on the geographical pattern, transmission routes and infection mechanism of pathogens. Online surveillance and prognostication network is an environmental Surveillance tool for monitoring the outbreak of pandemic diseases and alarming the risks to take emergency actions, targeting aerosols, waters, soils and animals. Strategy is policies and legislations for social distancing, lockdown and personal protective equipment to block the spread of infectious diseases in communities. Clinical measures are Salvage on patients by innovating appropriate medicines and therapies. The ultimate defensive Shield is vaccine development to protect healthy crowds from infection. Fighting against COVID-19 and other emerging infectious diseases is a long rocky journey, requiring the common endeavors of scientists and politicians from all countries around the world. 5S in global biodefense system bring a ray of light to the current darkest and future road from environmental and geographical perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinzi Wang
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
| | - Tianyun Wu
- Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Tsinghua-Suzhou), Suzhou 215163, PR China
| | - Luis F S Oliveira
- Departamento de Ingeniería Civil y Arquitectura, Universidad de Lima, Avenida Javier Prado Este 4600, Santiago de Surco 1503, Peru; Department of Civil and Environmental, Universidad de la Costa, Calle 58 #55-66, 080002 Barranquilla, Atlántico, Colombia
| | - Dayi Zhang
- College of New Energy and Environment, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, PR China.
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13
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Pecson BM, Darby E, Danielson R, Dearborn Y, Giovanni GD, Jakubowski W, Leddy M, Lukasik G, Mull B, Nelson KL, Olivieri A, Rock C, Slifko T. Distributions of waterborne pathogens in raw wastewater based on a 14-month, multi-site monitoring campaign. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 213:118170. [PMID: 35183914 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The California State Water Resources Control Board is the first regulatory body in the United States to develop statewide regulations for direct potable reuse (DPR). To support this effort, a pathogen monitoring campaign was undertaken to develop and implement an optimized standard operating protocol to better characterize the concentration of human pathogens in raw wastewater. Methods to detect relevant viral and protozoan pathogens in raw wastewater were optimized and implemented during a 14-month monitoring campaign. Over 120 samples were collected from five wastewater treatment plants treating a quarter of California's population. Samples were analyzed for two protozoa (Cryptosporidium and Giardia) using microscopy methods, three enteric viruses (enterovirus, adenovirus, and norovirus) using culture and/or molecular methods, and male-specific coliphage using culture methods. The method recovery efficiency was measured in every protozoa sample and every other virus sample to confirm minimum recovery efficiencies were achieved and to correct the concentrations for pathogen losses during sample processing. The results from this study provide the industry with a large, high-quality dataset as demonstrated by the high degree of method sensitivity, method recovery, and QA/QC steps. Such high-quality data on pathogen concentrations in raw wastewater are critical for confirming the level of treatment needed to reduce pathogen concentrations down to acceptable levels for potable water in DPR projects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - George Di Giovanni
- Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - Menu Leddy
- Essential Environmental & Engineering Systems, Huntington Beach, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Kara L Nelson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Channah Rock
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Maricopa, AZ, USA
| | - Theresa Slifko
- Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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14
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Papajová I, Šmigová J, Gregová G, Šoltys J, Venglovský J, Papaj J, Szabóová T, Dančová N, Ihnacik L, Schusterová I, Sušinková J, Raková J, Regecová I. Effect of Wastewater Treatment on Bacterial Community, Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Endoparasites. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:2750. [PMID: 35270443 PMCID: PMC8910630 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19052750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Wastewater and wastewater treatment plants serve as urban reservoirs of pathogenic microorganisms. Wastewaters frequently contain bacteria, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and developmental stages of parasites with significant zoonotic potential. Five wastewater treatment plants in the central part of Slovakia were investigated to determine the effect of treatment on bacterial community, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and the occurrence of helminth eggs. Although all monitored chemical factors (chemical oxygen demand, biochemical oxygen demand, N-NH4, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus) in the effluent were in line with the legislative standards for discharge into public waterways, the results of minimal inhibitory concentrations show that reclaimed water harbors E. coli resistant to several commonly used antibiotics (ampicillin, piperacillin, and tazobactam, combine ampicillin and sulbactam, cefotaxime, tetracycline). The presence of endoparasite developmental stages in wastewater and sludge (Ascaris spp., Hymenolepis nana, eggs from the Ancylostomatidae family, Giardia duodenalis) indicates potential health risks for humans and workers at these sites. Treatment such as composting before applying sludge to land is necessary to reduce human pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Papajová
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia; (J.Š.); (J.Š.); (L.I.)
| | - Júlia Šmigová
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia; (J.Š.); (J.Š.); (L.I.)
| | - Gabriela Gregová
- Department of Public Veterinary Medicine and Animal Welfare, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, 041 81 Košice, Slovakia; (G.G.); (J.V.); (T.S.); (N.D.)
| | - Jindřich Šoltys
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia; (J.Š.); (J.Š.); (L.I.)
| | - Ján Venglovský
- Department of Public Veterinary Medicine and Animal Welfare, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, 041 81 Košice, Slovakia; (G.G.); (J.V.); (T.S.); (N.D.)
| | - Ján Papaj
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Technical University in Košice, 042 00 Košice, Slovakia;
| | - Tatiana Szabóová
- Department of Public Veterinary Medicine and Animal Welfare, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, 041 81 Košice, Slovakia; (G.G.); (J.V.); (T.S.); (N.D.)
| | - Nikola Dančová
- Department of Public Veterinary Medicine and Animal Welfare, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, 041 81 Košice, Slovakia; (G.G.); (J.V.); (T.S.); (N.D.)
| | - Lukáš Ihnacik
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia; (J.Š.); (J.Š.); (L.I.)
- Department of Public Veterinary Medicine and Animal Welfare, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, 041 81 Košice, Slovakia; (G.G.); (J.V.); (T.S.); (N.D.)
| | - Ingrid Schusterová
- 1st Department of Cardiology, East Slovak Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, A Joint-Stock Company St., 040 11 Košice, Slovakia;
| | - Jana Sušinková
- Faculty of Medicine, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, 040 11 Košice, Slovakia; (J.S.); (J.R.)
| | - Jana Raková
- Faculty of Medicine, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, 040 11 Košice, Slovakia; (J.S.); (J.R.)
| | - Ivana Regecová
- Department of Food Hygiene, Technology and Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, 041 81 Košice, Slovakia;
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15
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Teel L, Olivieri A, Danielson R, Delić B, Pecson B, Crook J, Pagilla K. Protozoa reduction through secondary wastewater treatment in two water reclamation facilities. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 807:151053. [PMID: 34673065 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The State of Nevada, USA Administrative Code requires a 12-log enteric virus reduction/inactivation, 10-log Giardia cyst reduction, and 10-log Cryptosporidium oocyst reduction for Category A+ reclaimed water suitable for indirect potable reuse (IPR) based on raw wastewater to potable reuse water. Accurately demonstrating log10 reduction values (LRVs) through secondary biological treatment prior to an advanced water treatment train enables redundancy and resiliency for IPR projects while maintaining a high level of public confidence. LRVs for Cryptosporidium and Giardia resulting from secondary biological treatment are not fully established due to a wide range of performance variabilities resulting from different types of secondary biological treatment processes employed in water reclamation. A one-year investigation of two full-scale northern Nevada (e.g. ≤4 mgd; 1.5 × 107 L/day) water reclamation facilities (WRFs) was conducted to monitor Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in untreated wastewater and secondary effluent. This study aimed at establishing secondary treatment LRVs, monitor WRF performance and attempted to correlate performance to protozoan reduction. California's IPR regulations, in which Nevada IPR regulations were modeled after, were based on a maximum concentration of 5-logs (cysts/L) of Giardia and 4-logs (oocysts/L) of Cryptosporidium. The recovery-corrected Giardia and Cryptosporidium concentrations measured in untreated influent (20 samples each at each WRF) were below 5-log cysts/L at the 99th percentile (maximum 4.4-log cysts/L) and 4-log oocysts/L (maximum 2.7 log oocysts/L), respectively. Both secondary treatment WRFs produced secondary effluent that is consistently better than federal and the State of Nevada requirements and perform within an operating envelop for other secondary facilities. Given the results, it appears that a minimum conservative estimate for LRVs for well-operated secondary activated sludge treatment plants (at the 5th percentile) of 0.5 LRV credit for Cryptosporidium and 2.0 LRV for Giardia is warranted. These minimum LRVs are consistent with a conservative review of the available literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Teel
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Nevada, MS-0258, Reno, NV 89557-0258, USA; Truckee Meadows Water Authority, 1355 Capital Blvd, Reno, NV 89502, USA.
| | | | | | - Blaga Delić
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Nevada, MS-0258, Reno, NV 89557-0258, USA
| | | | - James Crook
- Environmental Engineering Consultant, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Krishna Pagilla
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Nevada, MS-0258, Reno, NV 89557-0258, USA
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16
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Tram NT, Phuc PD, Phi NH, Trang LT, Nga TT, Ha HTT, Cam PD, Canh TQ, Karanis P. Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Biogas Wastewater: Management of Manure Livestock and Hygiene Aspects Using Influent, Effluent, Sewage Canal Samples, Vegetable, and Soil Samples. Pathogens 2022; 11:174. [PMID: 35215118 PMCID: PMC8875155 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11020174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium and Giardia are two water- and foodborne protozoan parasites that can cause diarrheal diseases. Poor microbial quality, sanitation conditions, and hygiene practices at exposure to biogas wastewater are important risk factors for human and animal infection. This study highlights the presence and level of both parasites in the environment in relation to biogas waste reuse in Vietnam. A total of 239 samples were collected from different types of samples in the studied districts in Bac Giang province in 2020 via direct immunofluorescent detection to study the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. (oo)cysts. Among the samples, Cryptosporidium was found in 19 (7.9%) with concentration from 1.104 to 3.105 oocysts/100 mL, while Giardia in 40 (16.7%) with concentration from 1.104 to 2.106 cysts/100 mL, respectively. In detail, the results show that the percentages of positive detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in influent, effluent, sewage canal, and vegetables were 13.1% (11/84), 6.0% (5/83), 15.4% (2/13) and 5.9% (1/17) and 26.2% (22/84), 7.2% (6/83), 7.7% (1/13) and 5.9% (1/17), respectively. The results show a trend of decreasing Cryptosporidium and Giardia densities, without statistical significance. Although these parasites decreased after biogas treatment, the remaining loads observed in biogas effluent can reach the watercourses and soil receiving it. Further investigations are needed to contribute to a general understanding of the risk of protozoan parasites, as well as strategies to control and reduce the contamination of environmental water sources and plants and reduce the burden of the pathogens in biogas wastewater in Vietnam.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen Thuy Tram
- Department of Bacteriology, National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology (NIHE), 1 Yersin, Hanoi 122000, Vietnam; (N.T.T.); (L.T.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.T.T.H.); (P.D.C.)
| | - Pham Duc Phuc
- Center for Public Health and Ecosystem Research (CENPHER), Hanoi University of Public Health, 1A Duc Thang, Hanoi 122000, Vietnam; (P.D.P.); (N.H.P.)
| | - Nguyen Hong Phi
- Center for Public Health and Ecosystem Research (CENPHER), Hanoi University of Public Health, 1A Duc Thang, Hanoi 122000, Vietnam; (P.D.P.); (N.H.P.)
| | - Le Thi Trang
- Department of Bacteriology, National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology (NIHE), 1 Yersin, Hanoi 122000, Vietnam; (N.T.T.); (L.T.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.T.T.H.); (P.D.C.)
| | - Tang Thi Nga
- Department of Bacteriology, National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology (NIHE), 1 Yersin, Hanoi 122000, Vietnam; (N.T.T.); (L.T.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.T.T.H.); (P.D.C.)
| | - Hoang Thi Thu Ha
- Department of Bacteriology, National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology (NIHE), 1 Yersin, Hanoi 122000, Vietnam; (N.T.T.); (L.T.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.T.T.H.); (P.D.C.)
| | - Phung Dac Cam
- Department of Bacteriology, National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology (NIHE), 1 Yersin, Hanoi 122000, Vietnam; (N.T.T.); (L.T.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.T.T.H.); (P.D.C.)
| | - Tran Quang Canh
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Hai Duong Medical Technical University, 1 Vu Huu, Thanh Binh, Hai Duong 17000, Vietnam;
| | - Panagiotis Karanis
- Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, University Hospital, 50931 Cologne, Germany
- Department of Basic and Clinical Sciences, Medical School, Anatomy Institute, University of Nicosia, Nicosia 2408, Cyprus
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17
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Zahedi A, Monis P, Deere D, Ryan U. Wastewater-based epidemiology-surveillance and early detection of waterborne pathogens with a focus on SARS-CoV-2, Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:4167-4188. [PMID: 33409629 PMCID: PMC7787619 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-07023-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Waterborne diseases are a major global problem, resulting in high morbidity and mortality, and massive economic costs. The ability to rapidly and reliably detect and monitor the spread of waterborne diseases is vital for early intervention and preventing more widespread disease outbreaks. Pathogens are, however, difficult to detect in water and are not practicably detectable at acceptable concentrations that need to be achieved in treated drinking water (which are of the order one per million litre). Furthermore, current clinical-based surveillance methods have many limitations such as the invasive nature of the testing and the challenges in testing large numbers of people. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), which is based on the analysis of wastewater to monitor the emergence and spread of infectious disease at a population level, has received renewed attention in light of the current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The present review will focus on the application of WBE for the detection and surveillance of pathogens with a focus on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the waterborne protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium and Giardia. The review highlights the benefits and challenges of WBE and the future of this tool for community-wide infectious disease surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Zahedi
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
| | - Paul Monis
- South Australian Water Corporation, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Daniel Deere
- Water Futures and Water Research Australia, Sydney, Australia
| | - Una Ryan
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
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18
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Daraei H, Oliveri Conti G, Sahlabadi F, Thai VN, Gholipour S, Turki H, Fakhri Y, Ferrante M, Moradi A, Mousavi Khaneghah A. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in water: a global systematic review and meta-analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:9498-9507. [PMID: 33150505 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-11261-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium spp., as a genus of protozoan intestinal parasites, is recognized as responsible for cryptosporidiosis. The present study was conducted to provide an overview of the prevalence of Cryptosporidium based on water. In this regard, some databases such as Scopus, PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science were screened in order to retrieve the related citations from 1 January 1983 to 10 September 2019. The pooled prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. was calculated by using a random effect model (REM) based on defined subgroups, including countries, water type, treatment conditions (treated and untreated), economic condition, World Health Organization (WHO) regions, and method of detection. In contrast, this index for treated and untreated water was 25.7% and 40.1%, respectively. Also, the overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. among all water types was defined as 36 (95% CI: 31.4-40.7). The rank order of prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. based on water type was wastewater (46.9%) > surface water (45.3%) > raw water (31.6%) > drinking water (25.5%) > reservoirs water (24.5%) > groundwater (18.8%) > swimming pool water (7.5%) > marine water (0.20%). Identifying the key contributing factors to Cryptosporidium spp. survival can help provide solutions at both local and global scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hasti Daraei
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Gea Oliveri Conti
- Environmental and Food Hygiene Laboratories (LIAA) of Department of Medical, Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies "G.F. Ingrassia", Hygiene and Public Health, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Fatemeh Sahlabadi
- Food Health Research Center, Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
| | - Van Nam Thai
- Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HUTECH), 475A Dien Bien Phu, Ward 25, Binh Thanh District, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Sahar Gholipour
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | - Habibollah Turki
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Hormozgan Health Institute, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
| | - Yadolah Fakhri
- Food Health Research Center, Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran.
| | - Margherita Ferrante
- Environmental and Food Hygiene Laboratories (LIAA) of Department of Medical, Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies "G.F. Ingrassia", Hygiene and Public Health, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.
| | - Ali Moradi
- Occupational Health and Safety Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
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19
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Géba E, Rioult D, Palluel O, Dedourge-Geffard O, Betoulle S, Aubert D, Bigot-Clivot A. Resilience of Dreissena polymorpha in wastewater effluent: Use as a bioremediation tool? JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 278:111513. [PMID: 33113398 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, it is necessary to improve the efficiency of wastewater treatment plant treatments. In this context the use of biofilter species, like Dreissena polymorpha, as a bioremediation tool in wastewater is increasingly highlighted. The innovative aim of this study is to evaluate the zebra mussel survival in the outlet channel of a conventional WWTP to use them as bioremediation tool. For this, mussels were transplanted in the outlet channel for 28 days and different biomarkers were monitored. D. polymorpha is able to maintain itself in good physiological conditions until 21 days, yet at 28 days a high mortality rate (24%), a decrease in filtration efficiency (8/15 mussels filtered and 17.0% of filtration rate) and antioxidant system activation (CAT activity et gpx gene expression increase) suggest an exhaustion. Some biomarkers suggested a hypoxic stress. Despite the unfavourable conditions, bivalves have bioaccumulated pathogenic protozoa (Toxoplasma gondii and Giardia duodenalis) during the exposure. Zebra mussel seems to be a promising tool for bioremediation in wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elodie Géba
- Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, UMR-I 02 SEBIO (Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des Milieux Aquatiques), UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Campus Moulin de Housse, BP 1039, 51687, Reims cedex, 2, France; Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, EA7510, ESCAPE (EpidémioSurveillance et CirculAtion des Parasites dans les Environnements) Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, Faculté de Médecine, SFR Cap Santé Fed 4231, 51 Rue Cognacq Jay, 51096, Reims, France
| | - Damien Rioult
- Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, UMR-I 02 SEBIO (Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des Milieux Aquatiques), UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Campus Moulin de Housse, BP 1039, 51687, Reims cedex, 2, France; Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, Plateau Technique Mobile de cytométrie Environnementale MOBICYTE, Campus Moulin de la Housse, 51687, Reims, France
| | - Olivier Palluel
- Institut National de l'Environnement Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), UMR-I 02 SEBIO (Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des Milieux Aquatiques), Unité d'Ecotoxicologie in Vitro et in Vivo, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
| | - Odile Dedourge-Geffard
- Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, UMR-I 02 SEBIO (Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des Milieux Aquatiques), UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Campus Moulin de Housse, BP 1039, 51687, Reims cedex, 2, France
| | - Stéphane Betoulle
- Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, UMR-I 02 SEBIO (Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des Milieux Aquatiques), UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Campus Moulin de Housse, BP 1039, 51687, Reims cedex, 2, France
| | - Dominique Aubert
- Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, EA7510, ESCAPE (EpidémioSurveillance et CirculAtion des Parasites dans les Environnements) Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, Faculté de Médecine, SFR Cap Santé Fed 4231, 51 Rue Cognacq Jay, 51096, Reims, France
| | - Aurélie Bigot-Clivot
- Université de Reims Champagne Ardenne, UMR-I 02 SEBIO (Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des Milieux Aquatiques), UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Campus Moulin de Housse, BP 1039, 51687, Reims cedex, 2, France.
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Abstract
Cyclospora is an intracellular, gastrointestinal parasite found in birds and mammals worldwide. Limited accessibility of the protozoan for experimental use, scarcity, genome heterogeneity of the isolates and narrow panel of molecular markers hamper zoonotic investigations. One of the significant limitation in zoonotic studies is the lack of precise molecular tools that would be useful in linking animal vectors as a source of human infection. Strong and convincing evidence of zoonotic features will be achieved through proper typing of Cyclospora spp. taxonomic units (e.g. species or genotypes) in animal reservoirs. The most promising method that can be employ for zoonotic surveys is next-generation sequencing.
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de Oliveira GL, Daniel LA. Removal of Giardia spp. cysts and Cryptosporididum spp. oocysts from anaerobic effluent by dissolved air flotation. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2021; 42:141-147. [PMID: 31136251 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2019.1625447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Lab-scale studies were carried out to investigate the efficiency of dissolved air flotation (DAF) for the removal of Giardia spp. cysts and Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts from anaerobic effluent from the pilot UASB reactor. Raw wastewater, UASB and DAF effluent samples were collected weekly and protozoan (oo)cysts were concentrated using IMS followed by protozoa detection using immunofluorescense assay (IFA). The number of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in the raw wastewater was always lower than that of Giardia spp. cysts with 28-33 oocysts L-1 and 3177-4267 cysts L-1, respectively. Log10 removal of Giardia cysts utilising polyaluminium chloride (PACl) was higher than that with FeCl3, but no statistically significant difference between the two coagulants was observed. Cryptosporidium was absent in most of the treated effluent samples. The results indicate that DAF reached more than 2 log of cyst removal. In addition, the results demonstrated that these parasites are prevalent in the study area and E. coli and total coliforms were not good indicator microorganisms in terms of cyst and oocysts numbers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Laila de Oliveira
- Hydraulic and Sanitation Department, São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz Antonio Daniel
- Hydraulic and Sanitation Department, São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Javanmard E, Mirsamadi ES, Olfatifar M, Ghasemi E, Saki F, Mirjalali H, Zali MR, Karanis P. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in vegetables in Iran: a nineteen-years meta-analysis review. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCE & ENGINEERING 2020; 18:1629-1641. [PMID: 33312667 PMCID: PMC7721826 DOI: 10.1007/s40201-020-00493-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium and Giardia are two major protozoa reported from vegetables and environment. The prevalence of these parasites supposes to be different regarding the climate zones. This review aimed to evaluate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in vegetables according to the major climate zones in Iran. The results showed pooled prevalence 7% (95% CI: 2%, 14%) and 4% (95% CI: 3%, 6%) for Cryptosporidium spp., and Giardia spp., respectively. The prevalence of Giardia spp. in mountain, desert and semi-desert, and Mediterranean regions was 4% (95% CI: 2%, 6%), 5% (95% CI: 3%, 8%) and 7% (95% CI: 1%, 18%), respectively. Cryptosporidium spp. was reported 8% (95% CI: 0%, 65%), 6% (95% CI: 0%, 18%) and 4% (95% CI: 0%, 77%) from mountain, desert and semi-desert, and Mediterranean climate zones, respectively. This review suggests the higher prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Mediterranean and mountain regions, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehsan Javanmard
- Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Elnaz Sadat Mirsamadi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Meysam Olfatifar
- Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Erfan Ghasemi
- Department of Biostatistics, Faculty of Paramedical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Saki
- Department of Geography, Faculty of Teacher Education, Farhangian University, Alborz, Iran
| | - Hamed Mirjalali
- Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Zali
- Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Panagiotis Karanis
- Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Department of Basic and Clinical Sciences, Nicosia University Medical School, 2408 Nicosia, Cyprus
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23
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Dead-End Ultrafiltration and DNA-Based Methods for Detection of Cyclospora cayetanensis in Agricultural Water. Appl Environ Microbiol 2020; 86:AEM.01595-20. [PMID: 32948525 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01595-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclospora cayetanensis is a protozoan parasite that causes foodborne and waterborne diarrheal illness outbreaks worldwide. Most of these outbreaks are associated with the consumption of fresh produce. Sensitive and specific methods to detect C. cayetanensis in agricultural water are needed to identify the parasite in agricultural water used to irrigate crops that have been implicated in outbreaks. In this study, a method to detect C. cayetanensis in water by combining dead-end ultrafiltration (DEUF) with sensitive and specific molecular detection was developed and evaluated. Triplicates of 10-liter agricultural water samples were seeded with 200, 100, 25, 12, and 6 C. cayetanensis oocysts. Surface water samples were also collected in the Mid-Atlantic region. All water samples were processed by DEUF and backflushed from the ultrafilters. DNA was extracted from concentrated samples and analyzed by quantitative PCR (qPCR) targeting the C. cayetanensis 18S rRNA gene. All water samples seeded with 12, 25, 100, and 200 oocysts were positive, and all unseeded samples were negative. Samples seeded with 6 oocysts had a detection rate of 66.6% (8/12). The method was also able to detect C. cayetanensis isolates in surface water samples from different locations of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal (C&O Canal) in Maryland. This approach could consistently detect C. cayetanensis DNA in 10-liter agricultural water samples contaminated with low levels of oocysts, equivalent to the levels that may be found in naturally incurred environmental water sources. Our data demonstrate the robustness of the method as a useful tool to detect C. cayetanensis from environmental sources.IMPORTANCE Cyclospora cayetanensis is a protozoan parasite that causes foodborne and waterborne outbreaks of diarrheal illness worldwide. These foodborne outbreaks associated with the consumption of fresh produce and agricultural water could play a role in the contamination process. In this study, a method to detect C. cayetanensis in agricultural water by combining a robust filtration system with sensitive and specific molecular detection was developed and validated by the FDA. The results showed that this approach could consistently detect low levels of C. cayetanensis contamination in 10 liters of agricultural water, corresponding to the levels that may be found in naturally occurring environmental water sources. The method was also able to detect C. cayetanensis in surface water samples from a specific location in the Mid-Atlantic region. Our data demonstrate the robustness of the method to detect C. cayetanensis in agricultural water samples, which could be very useful to identify environmental sources of contamination.
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Schoen ME, Boehm AB, Soller J, Shanks OC. Contamination Scenario Matters when Using Viral and Bacterial Human-Associated Genetic Markers as Indicators of a Health Risk in Untreated Sewage-Impacted Recreational Waters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:13101-13109. [PMID: 32969642 PMCID: PMC8215692 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Fecal pollution at beaches can pose a health risk to recreators. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) is a tool to evaluate the use of candidate fecal indicators to signify a health risk from enteric pathogens in sewage-impacted waters. We extend the QMRA approach to model mixtures of sewage at different ages using genetic marker concentrations for human-associated crAssphage, Bacteroides spp., and polyomavirus in sewage samples from 49 wastewater facilities across the contiguous United States. Risk-based threshold (RBT) estimates varied across different mixture and sewage age scenarios. Fresh sewage RBT estimates were not always protective when aged sewage was present, and aged sewage RBT estimates often fell below the marker lower limit of quantification. Conservative RBT estimates of 9.3 × 102 and 9.1 × 103 (copies/100 mL) for HF183/BacR287 and CPQ_056, respectively, were predicted when fresh sewage was greater (by volume) than aged at the time of measurement. Conversely, genetic markers may not be effective indicators when aged sewage contributes the majority of pathogens, relative to fresh contamination, but minimal marker levels. Results highlight the utility of QMRA that incorporates pollutant age and mixture scenarios, the potential advantages of a crAssphage fecal indicator, and the potential influence of site-specific factors on estimating RBT values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary E Schoen
- Soller Environmental, LLC, 3022 King St., Berkeley, California 94703, United States
| | - Alexandria B Boehm
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Jeffrey Soller
- Soller Environmental, LLC, 3022 King St., Berkeley, California 94703, United States
| | - Orin C Shanks
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
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25
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Holcomb DA, Stewart JR. Microbial Indicators of Fecal Pollution: Recent Progress and Challenges in Assessing Water Quality. Curr Environ Health Rep 2020; 7:311-324. [PMID: 32542574 PMCID: PMC7458903 DOI: 10.1007/s40572-020-00278-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Fecal contamination of water is a major public health concern. This review summarizes recent developments and advancements in water quality indicators of fecal contamination. RECENT FINDINGS This review highlights a number of trends. First, fecal indicators continue to be a valuable tool to assess water quality and have expanded to include indicators able to detect sources of fecal contamination in water. Second, molecular methods, particularly PCR-based methods, have advanced considerably in their selected targets and rigor, but have added complexity that may prohibit adoption for routine monitoring activities at this time. Third, risk modeling is beginning to better connect indicators and human health risks, with the accuracy of assessments currently tied to the timing and conditions where risk is measured. Research has advanced although challenges remain for the effective use of both traditional and alternative fecal indicators for risk characterization, source attribution and apportionment, and impact evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Holcomb
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 135 Dauer Dr., Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7435, USA
| | - Jill R Stewart
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 135 Dauer Dr., Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7431, USA.
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26
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Benito M, Menacho C, Chueca P, Ormad MP, Goñi P. Seeking the reuse of effluents and sludge from conventional wastewater treatment plants: Analysis of the presence of intestinal protozoa and nematode eggs. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2020; 261:110268. [PMID: 32148324 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 01/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Some of the microorganisms present in urban wastewater, which include intestinal protozoa and nematodes, can be pathogenic. Their (oo)cyst and egg transmissible stages are very resistant to environmental stresses and disinfectants and they are therefore difficult to remove. Thus, they can constitute a health risk if water or sludge obtained in the purification of wastewater is reused for agricultural purposes. In this context, the presence of intestinal protozoa and nematodes were studied in influents, effluents and sludge from five wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the north of Spain by optical microscopy and PCR techniques. The removal efficiency of different wastewater treatments was also compared. The presence of protozoa has increased among the population discharging waste to WWTPs in recent years. Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Entamoeba spp. and nematodes were detected in all of the WWTPs. Indeed, this is the first report of Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba moshkovskii in Spanish WWTPs. The water treatments studied showed different removal efficiencies for each species of intestinal protozoa, with the aerated lagoons providing the best results. (Oo)cysts were also detected in sludge even after aerobic digestion and dehydration. To avoid risks, (oo)cyst viability should be analysed whenever the sludge is to be used as a fertilizer. This study reinforces the necessity of establishing legal limits on the presence of protozoa in WWTP effluents and sludges, especially if reuse is planned. Further studies are necessary for a better understanding of the presence and behaviour of intestinal parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Benito
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technologies, EINA, University of Zaragoza, C/María de Luna 3, 50018, Zaragoza, Spain; Area of Parasitology, Department of Microbiology, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zaragoza, C/Domingo Miral s/n, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain.
| | - Carmen Menacho
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technologies, EINA, University of Zaragoza, C/María de Luna 3, 50018, Zaragoza, Spain; Area of Parasitology, Department of Microbiology, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zaragoza, C/Domingo Miral s/n, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain; Water and Environmental Health Research Group, Environmental Sciences Institute (IUCA), University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain.
| | - Patricia Chueca
- Area of Parasitology, Department of Microbiology, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zaragoza, C/Domingo Miral s/n, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain.
| | - María P Ormad
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technologies, EINA, University of Zaragoza, C/María de Luna 3, 50018, Zaragoza, Spain; Water and Environmental Health Research Group, Environmental Sciences Institute (IUCA), University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain.
| | - Pilar Goñi
- Area of Parasitology, Department of Microbiology, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zaragoza, C/Domingo Miral s/n, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain; Water and Environmental Health Research Group, Environmental Sciences Institute (IUCA), University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain.
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27
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Stensvold CR, Lebbad M, Hansen A, Beser J, Belkessa S, O'Brien Andersen L, Clark CG. Differentiation of Blastocystis and parasitic archamoebids encountered in untreated wastewater samples by amplicon-based next-generation sequencing. Parasite Epidemiol Control 2019; 9:e00131. [PMID: 31909230 PMCID: PMC6940715 DOI: 10.1016/j.parepi.2019.e00131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Application of next-generation sequencing (NGS) to genomic DNA extracted from sewage offers a unique and cost-effective opportunity to study the genetic diversity of intestinal parasites. In this study, we used amplicon-based NGS to reveal and differentiate several common luminal intestinal parasitic protists, specifically Entamoeba, Endolimax, Iodamoeba, and Blastocystis, in sewage samples from Swedish treatment plants. Materials and methods Influent sewage samples were subject to gradient centrifugation, DNA extraction and PCR-based amplification using three primer pairs designed for amplification of eukaryotic nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA. PCR products were sequenced using ILLUMINA® technology, and resulting sequences were annotated to species and subtype level using the in-house BION software, sequence clustering, and phylogenetic analysis. Results A total of 26 samples from eight treatment plants in central/southern Sweden were analysed. Blastocystis sp. and Entamoeba moshkovskii were detected in all samples, and most samples (n = 20) were positive for Entamoeba coli. Moreover, we detected Entamoeba histolytica, Entamoeba dispar, Entamoeba hartmanni, Endolimax nana, and Iodamoeba bütschlii in 1, 11, 4, 10, and 7 samples, respectively. The level of genetic divergence observed within E. nana and E. moshkovskii was 20.2% and 7.7%, respectively, across the ~400-bp region studied, and two clades of E. moshkovskii were found. As expected, Blastocystis sp. subtypes 1–4 were present in almost all samples; however, ST8 was present in 10 samples and was the only subtype not commonly found in humans that was present in multiple samples. Conclusions Entamoeba and Blastocystis were identified as universal members of the “sewage microbiome”. Blastocystis sp. ST8, which has been rarely reported in humans, was a very common finding, indicating that a hitherto unidentified but common host of ST8 contributed to the sewage influent. The study also provided substantial new insight into the intra-generic diversity of Entamoeba and Endolimax.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christen Rune Stensvold
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Bacteria, Parasites and Fungi, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark
| | - Marianne Lebbad
- Department of Microbiology, Public Health Agency of Sweden, SE-171 82 Solna, Sweden
| | - Anette Hansen
- Department of Microbiology, Public Health Agency of Sweden, SE-171 82 Solna, Sweden
| | - Jessica Beser
- Department of Microbiology, Public Health Agency of Sweden, SE-171 82 Solna, Sweden
| | - Salem Belkessa
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Bacteria, Parasites and Fungi, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark.,Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Biological and Agronomic Sciences, Mouloud Mammeri University of Tizi Ouzou, 15000 Tizi Ouzou, Algeria.,Department of Natural and Life Sciences, Faculty of Exact Sciences and Natural and Life Sciences, Mohamed Khider University of Biskra, 07000 Biskra, Algeria
| | - Lee O'Brien Andersen
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Bacteria, Parasites and Fungi, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark
| | - C Graham Clark
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
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28
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Boehm AB. Risk-based water quality thresholds for coliphages in surface waters: effect of temperature and contamination aging. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2019; 21:2031-2041. [PMID: 31612888 DOI: 10.1039/c9em00376b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Coliphages, viruses that infect Escherichia coli, have been used for decades to assess surface water quality yet there is no guideline for interpreting their concentrations. The present study uses a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) framework to derive risk-based surface water quality thresholds for somatic and F+ or male-specific coliphages. The risk-based threshold is the concentration at which the risk of gastro-intestinal illness is simulated to be 32/1000. The framework specifically investigates a simplified hazard scenario where recreational swimmers come into contact with water contaminated with untreated sewage containing coliphages and enteric pathogens. The framework considers exposure to sewage of diverse ages and thus accounts for the decay of coliphages and pathogens over time. As decay rate constants depend on temperature, the model considers the effect of temperature on the risk-based threshold. When exposure to fresh, unaged sewage contamination occurs, the risk-based water quality threshold for somatic and F+ coliphages is 60 PFU per 100 mL and 30 PFU per 100 mL, respectively, and temperature independent. The risk-based threshold decreases as the contamination ages because, on average, coliphages decay more quickly than norovirus, the pathogen that contributes the most to risk. The decrease in the risk-based threshold with contaminant age is equal to the difference in the first order decay rate constants of coliphages and norovirus. Since coliphage decay rate constants are larger at 25 °C than at 15 °C, and norovirus decay rate constants are a weak function of temperature, risk-based thresholds decrease more quickly with age at 25 °C than at 15 °C. For the common case where the age of contamination is unknown, the risk-based threshold for both coliphages is between ∼1 PFU per 100 mL and ∼10 PFU per 100 mL, depending on model assumptions. Future work can apply this QMRA framework for identifying risk-based thresholds for coliphages from different hazards (treated wastewater or animal feces) or from mixtures of contamination of different ages and sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandria B Boehm
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA 94305-4020.
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29
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Medeiros RC, Daniel LA, de Oliveira GL, Hoffmann MT. Performance of a small-scale wastewater treatment plant for removal of pathogenic protozoa (oo)cysts and indicator microorganisms. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2019; 40:3492-3501. [PMID: 29813004 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2018.1480063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The protozoa Giardia and Cryptosporidium are associated with numerous outbreaks of waterborne diseases worldwide. This study aimed to evaluate the concentration of Giardia spp. cysts, Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts, total coliforms, Escherichia coli and Clostridium perfringens in raw wastewater and their removals at UASB reactor, activated sludge system (operated conventionally and extended aeration) and slow sand filtration. Giardia spp. cysts were present in 100% and Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in 31.4% of the analysed wastewater samples. The UASB reactor followed by activated sludge system obtained approximately 2.0 log of removal for total coliforms and E. coli, whereas for C. perfringens and Giardia spp. cysts, it obtained 1 log. There was a high percentage of (oo)cysts still viable after secondary treatment, therefore, the risk of contamination of water courses and, consequently, for public health is considerable. However, after tertiary filtration, no (oo)cysts were found in any of the filtered effluent samples, being a good option for future reuse. Seasonal variations did not affect the concentrations and removals of microorganisms observed. Lack of correlations of concentrations of indicator microorganisms and (oo)cysts raise caveats and doubts regarding the true microbiological quality when using only indicator microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphael Corrêa Medeiros
- Department of Engineering and Environmental Technology, Federal University of Santa Maria , Frederico Westphalen , Brazil
| | - Luiz Antonio Daniel
- Hydraulics and Sanitation Department, São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo , São Carlos - São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Gabriela Laila de Oliveira
- Hydraulics and Sanitation Department, São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo , São Carlos - São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Maria Teresa Hoffmann
- Hydraulics and Sanitation Department, São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo , São Carlos - São Paulo , Brazil
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30
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Reduction of Arcobacter at Two Conventional Wastewater Treatment Plants in Southern Arizona, USA. Pathogens 2019; 8:pathogens8040175. [PMID: 31581714 PMCID: PMC6963474 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8040175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to identify the bacterial community in two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and to determine the occurrence and reduction of Arcobacter, along with virulence genes (ciaB and pldA). A total of 48 samples (24 influent and 24 effluent) were collected at two WWTPs in southern Arizona in the United States, monthly from August 2011 to July 2012. Bacterial DNA extract was utilized for 16S rRNA metagenomic sequencing. Quantification of Arcobacter 16S rRNA gene was conducted using a recently developed SYBR Green-based quantitative PCR assay. Among 847 genera identified, 113 (13%) were identified as potentially pathogenic bacteria. Arcobacter 16S rRNA gene was detected in all influent samples and ten (83%) and nine (75%) effluent samples at each plant, respectively. Log reduction ratios of Arcobacter 16S rRNA gene in Plant A and Plant B were 1.7 ± 0.9 (n = 10) and 2.3 ± 1.5 (n = 9), respectively. The ciaB gene was detected by quantitative PCR in eleven (92%) and twelve (100%) of 12 influent samples from Plant A and Plant B, respectively, while the pldA gene was detected in eight (67%) and six (50%) influent samples from Plant A and Plant B, respectively. The prevalence of potentially pathogenic bacteria in WWTP effluent indicated the need for disinfection before discharge into the environment.
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31
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Almeria S, Cinar HN, Dubey JP. Cyclospora cayetanensis and Cyclosporiasis: An Update. Microorganisms 2019; 7:E317. [PMID: 31487898 PMCID: PMC6780905 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7090317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclospora cayetanensis is a coccidian parasite of humans, with a direct fecal-oral transmission cycle. It is globally distributed and an important cause of foodborne outbreaks of enteric disease in many developed countries, mostly associated with the consumption of contaminated fresh produce. Because oocysts are excreted unsporulated and need to sporulate in the environment, direct person-to-person transmission is unlikely. Infection by C. cayetanensis is remarkably seasonal worldwide, although it varies by geographical regions. Most susceptible populations are children, foreigners, and immunocompromised patients in endemic countries, while in industrialized countries, C. cayetanensis affects people of any age. The risk of infection in developed countries is associated with travel to endemic areas and the domestic consumption of contaminated food, mainly fresh produce imported from endemic regions. Water and soil contaminated with fecal matter may act as a vehicle of transmission for C. cayetanensis infection. The disease is self-limiting in most immunocompetent patients, but it may present as a severe, protracted or chronic diarrhea in some cases, and may colonize extra-intestinal organs in immunocompromised patients. Trimetoprim-sulfamethoxazole is the antibiotic of choice for the treatment of cyclosporiasis, but relapses may occur. Further research is needed to understand many unknown epidemiological aspects of this parasitic disease. Here, we summarize the biology, epidemiology, outbreaks, clinical symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, control and prevention of C. cayetanensis; additionally, we outline future research needs for this parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Almeria
- Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Nutrition (CFSAN), Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment (OARSA), Division of Virulence Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Hediye N Cinar
- Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Nutrition (CFSAN), Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment (OARSA), Division of Virulence Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Jitender P Dubey
- Animal Parasitic Disease Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 1001, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA.
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Iqbal A, Liu J, Dixon B, Zargar B, Sattar SA. Development and application of DNA-aptamer-coupled magnetic beads and aptasensors for the detection of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in drinking and recreational water resources. Can J Microbiol 2019; 65:851-857. [PMID: 31404505 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2019-0153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Environmentally stable and disinfectant-resistant oocysts of Cryptosporidium spp. shed in the feces of infected humans and animals frequently contaminate water resources and are subsequently spread via potable and recreational waters. The current monoclonal-antibody-based methods for detecting them in water are slow, labor-intensive, and demand skills to interpret the results. We have developed DNA-aptamer-based aptasensors, coupled with magnetic beads, to detect and identify the oocysts of C. parvum for monitoring recreational and drinking water sources. A sensitive and specific electrochemical aptasensor (3'-biotinylated R4-6 aptamer) was used as a secondary ligand to bind the streptavidin-coated magnetic beads. This was incorporated into a probe using gold nanoparticle modified screen-printed carbon electrodes. Square wave voltammetry allowed for specific recognition of C. parvum oocysts. The aptamer-coated probes had an oocyst detection limit of 50. It did not bind to the cysts of Giardia duodenalis, another common waterborne pathogen, thus indicating its high specificity for the target pathogen. The system could successfully detect C. parvum oocysts in spiked samples of the raw lake and river waters. Therefore, the combined use of the aptasensor and magnetic beads has the potential to monitor water quality for C. parvum oocysts in field samples without relying on monoclonal antibodies and skill-demanding microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asma Iqbal
- CREM Co Labs, Units 1-2, 3403 American Drive, Mississauga, ON L4V 1T4, Canada
| | - Juewen Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Brent Dixon
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting, Ottawa, ON K1Y 0M1, Canada
| | - Bahram Zargar
- CREM Co Labs, Units 1-2, 3403 American Drive, Mississauga, ON L4V 1T4, Canada
| | - Syed A Sattar
- CREM Co Labs, Units 1-2, 3403 American Drive, Mississauga, ON L4V 1T4, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada
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Yamashiro S, Foco MLR, Pineda CO, José J, Nour EAA, Siqueira-Castro ICV, Franco RMB. Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. removal efficiency of a combined fixed-film system treating domestic wastewater receiving hospital effluent. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:22756-22771. [PMID: 31172433 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-05500-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Giardia and Cryptosporidium have caused numerous outbreaks of diarrhea as a result of the ingestion of water contaminated with sewage. In Brazil, the efficiency of Giardia and Cryptosporidium removal by combined fixed-film systems has rarely been studied. The aims of the present study were therefore to verify the removal efficiency of Giardia and Cryptosporidium by a combined system (anaerobic/anoxic filter and aerated submerged biofilter) and to perform the genetic characterization of these parasites. The (oo)cysts were detected by centrifuge concentration and membrane filtration from raw sewage, effluents, adhered biomass, and sludge samples. Immunofluorescence assay and differential interference contrast microscopy were used for the visualization of the (oo)cysts. Nested PCR was applied to confirm Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Giardia and Cryptosporidium were detected in 27% and 5.5% of the 144 analyzed samples of raw sewage and effluents, respectively. A total of 33,000 cysts/L were recovered in the adhered biomass samples (n = 25) from different points of the aerated submerged biofilter, while 6000 oocysts/L were registered in a single point. An average of 11,800 cysts/L were found in the sludge samples (n = 5). The combined system exhibited a removal efficiency of Giardia cysts of 1.8 ± 1.0 log removal. The C and BIV assemblages of Giardia were identified in the raw sewage while AII was found in the treated effluent sample. It was not possible to calculate the removal efficiency of Cryptosporidium oocysts by the combined system. The combined system exhibited some potential as a suitable treatment for the removal of parasites from sewage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Yamashiro
- Laboratory of Protozoology, Department of Animal Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Monteiro Lobato Street, n°255, Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil
| | - Mário Luiz Rodrigues Foco
- Department of Sanitation and Environment, School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil
| | - Carolina Ortiz Pineda
- Laboratory of Protozoology, Department of Animal Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Monteiro Lobato Street, n°255, Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil
| | - Juliana José
- Department of Genetic and Evolution, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil
| | - Edson Aparecido Abdul Nour
- Department of Sanitation and Environment, School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil
| | - Isabel Cristina Vidal Siqueira-Castro
- Laboratory of Protozoology, Department of Animal Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Monteiro Lobato Street, n°255, Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil
| | - Regina Maura Bueno Franco
- Laboratory of Protozoology, Department of Animal Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Monteiro Lobato Street, n°255, Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil.
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Microbiological Constraints for Use of Reclaimed and Reconditioned Water in Food Production and Processing Operations. Food Microbiol 2019. [DOI: 10.1128/9781555819972.ch41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Ibrahim S, Choumane W, Dayoub A. Occurrence and seasonal variations of Giardia in wastewater and river water from Al-Jinderiyah region in Latakia, Syria. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/00207233.2019.1619320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Suha Ibrahim
- Department of Environmental Prevention, Higher Institute for Environmental Research, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syria
| | - Wafaa Choumane
- Faculty of Agriculture, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syria
| | - Amal Dayoub
- Department of Environmental Prevention, Higher Institute for Environmental Research, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syria
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Human cyclosporiasis. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2019; 19:e226-e236. [PMID: 30885589 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(18)30789-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Cyclospora species are socioeconomically important protistan pathogens. Cyclospora cayetanensis is usually transmitted via food or water to a human host via the faecal-oral route and can cause the gastrointestinal disease cyclosporiasis, which can be complicated by extra-intestinal disorders, particularly in immune-compromised people. Although more than 2 million children die each year from diarrhoeal diseases worldwide, it is not known to what extent cyclosporiasis is involved. Few epidemiological data are available on Cyclospora as a water-borne and food-borne pathogen in both underprivileged communities and developed countries. To gain an improved understanding of human cyclosporiasis, this Review describes the background of Cyclospora, summarises salient aspects of the pathogenesis, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and control of cyclosporiasis, and explores what is known about its prevalence and geographical distribution. The findings show that the effect on human health of cyclosporiasis is likely underestimated, and recommendations are made about areas of future research and the prevention and control of this disease within an international collaborative context.
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Co-Infection by Waterborne Enteric Viruses in Children with Gastroenteritis in Nepal. Healthcare (Basel) 2019; 7:healthcare7010009. [PMID: 30642113 PMCID: PMC6473710 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare7010009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2018] [Revised: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric viruses are highly contagious and a major cause of waterborne gastroenteritis in children younger than five years of age in developing world. This study examined the prevalence of enteric virus infection in children with gastroenteritis to identify risk factors for co-infections. In total, 107 stool samples were collected from patients with acute gastroenteritis along with samples of their household drinking water and other possible contamination sources, such as food and hand. The presence of major gastroenteritis-causing enteric virus species (group A rotaviruses, enteroviruses, adenoviruses, and noroviruses of genogroup I) in stool and water samples was examined using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Among the 107 stool samples tested, 103 (96%) samples contained at least one of the four tested enteric viruses, and the combination of group A rotaviruses and enteroviruses was the most common co-infection (52%, n = 54/103). At least one viral agent was detected in 16 (16%) of 103 drinking water samples. Identical enteric viruses were detected in both the stool and water samples taken from the same patients in 13% of cases (n = 13/103). Group A rotaviruses were most frequently found in children suffering from acute diarrhea. No socio-demographic and clinical factors were associated with the risk of co-infection compared with mono-infection. These less commonly diagnosed viral etiological agents in hospitals are highly prevalent in patients with acute gastroenteritis.
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Tolouei S, Burnet JB, Autixier L, Taghipour M, Bonsteel J, Duy SV, Sauvé S, Prévost M, Dorner S. Temporal variability of parasites, bacterial indicators, and wastewater micropollutants in a water resource recovery facility under various weather conditions. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 148:446-458. [PMID: 30408731 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.10.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater discharges lead to the deterioration of receiving waters through treated effluents and by-passes, combined and sanitary sewer overflows, and cross-connections to storm sewers. The influence of weather conditions on fecal indicator bacteria, pathogens and wastewater micropollutants on raw and treated sewage concentrations has not been extensively characterized. However, such data are needed to understand the effects of by-pass discharges and incomplete treatment on receiving waters. A water resource recovery facility was monitored for pathogenic parasites (Cryptosporidium oocysts, Giardia cysts), fecal indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens), and wastewater micropollutants (caffeine, carbamazepine, 2-hydroxycarbamazepine, acesulfame, sucralose, and aspartame) during 6 events under different weather conditions (snowmelt and trace to 32 mm 2-day cumulative precipitation). Greater intra- and inter-event variability was observed for Giardia, E. coli and C. perfringens than for studied WWMPs. Even with the addition of inflow and infiltration, daily variations dominated concentration trends. Thus, afternoon and early evening were identified as critical times with regards to high concentrations and flows for potential by-pass discharges. Peak concentrations of Giardia were observed during the June wet weather event (1010 cysts/L), with the highest flowrates relative to the mean monthly flowrate. Overall, Giardia, E. coli and C. perfringens concentrations were positively correlated with flowrate (R > 0.32, p < 0.05). In raw sewage samples collected under high precipitation conditions, caffeine, carbamazepine and its metabolite 2-OH-carbamazepine were significantly correlated (p < 0.05) with Giardia, E. coli, and C. perfringens demonstrating that they are useful markers for untreated sewage discharges. Data from the study are needed for estimating peak concentrations discharged from wastewater sources in relation to precipitation or snowmelt events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samira Tolouei
- Canada Research Chair in Source Water Protection, Polytechnique Montréal, Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering Department, P.O. Box 6079, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3A7, Canada; NSERC Industrial Chair on Drinking Water, Polytechnique Montréal, Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering Department, P.O. Box 6079, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3A7, Canada.
| | - Jean-Baptiste Burnet
- Canada Research Chair in Source Water Protection, Polytechnique Montréal, Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering Department, P.O. Box 6079, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3A7, Canada; NSERC Industrial Chair on Drinking Water, Polytechnique Montréal, Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering Department, P.O. Box 6079, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3A7, Canada
| | - Laurène Autixier
- Canada Research Chair in Source Water Protection, Polytechnique Montréal, Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering Department, P.O. Box 6079, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3A7, Canada
| | - Milad Taghipour
- Canada Research Chair in Source Water Protection, Polytechnique Montréal, Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering Department, P.O. Box 6079, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3A7, Canada
| | - Jane Bonsteel
- Peel Region, 10 Peel Centre Dr, Brampton, L6T 4B9, ON, Canada
| | - Sung Vo Duy
- Chemistry Department, University of Montréal, C.P. 6128, Centre-ville, Montréal, H3C 3J7, QC, Canada
| | - Sébastien Sauvé
- Chemistry Department, University of Montréal, C.P. 6128, Centre-ville, Montréal, H3C 3J7, QC, Canada
| | - Michéle Prévost
- NSERC Industrial Chair on Drinking Water, Polytechnique Montréal, Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering Department, P.O. Box 6079, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3A7, Canada
| | - Sarah Dorner
- Canada Research Chair in Source Water Protection, Polytechnique Montréal, Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering Department, P.O. Box 6079, Station Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3A7, Canada
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Evaluation of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration validated method for detection of Cyclospora cayetanensis in high-risk fresh produce matrices and a method modification for a prepared dish. Food Microbiol 2018; 76:497-503. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2018.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Abeledo-Lameiro MJ, Ares-Mazás E, Goméz-Couso H. Use of ultrasound irradiation to inactivate Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in effluents from municipal wastewater treatment plants. ULTRASONICS SONOCHEMISTRY 2018; 48:118-126. [PMID: 30080534 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2018.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Water reuse is currently considered an innovative way to addressing water shortage that can provide significant economic, social and environmental benefits, particularly -but not exclusively- in water deficient areas. The potential transmission of infectious diseases is the most common concern in relation to water reclamation. Cryptosporidium is an important genus of protozoan enteropathogens that infect a wide range of vertebrate hosts, including humans. The infective form (oocyst) is highly resistant to the environmental conditions and disinfection treatments. Consequently, Cryptosporidium is the most common etiological agent identified in waterborne outbreaks attributed to parasitic protozoa worldwide. The present study evaluates the efficacy of ultrasound disinfection, at three power levels (60, 80 and 100 W), pulsed at 50% or in continuous mode, for inactivating the waterborne protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum in simulated and real effluents from municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWTPs). Overall interpretation of the results shows that the application of ultrasound irradiation at 80 W power in continuous mode for an exposure time of 10 min drastically reduced the viability of C. parvum. Thus, oocyst viabilities of 4.16 ± 1.93%; 1.29 ± 0.86%; 3.16 ± 0.69%; and 3.15 ± 0.87% were obtained in distilled water, simulated, real and filtered MWTP effluents, respectively (vs 98.57 ± 0.01%, initial oocyst viability), as determined using inclusion/exclusion of the fluorogenic vital dye propidium iodide, an indicator of the integrity of the oocyst wall. Independently of the mode used (pulsed/continuous) and at 80 W power, higher level of oocyst inactivation was detected in MWTP effluents than in distilled water used as a control solution, may be due to the differences in the chemical composition of the samples. Comparison of the results obtained in both modes showed that use of the continuous mode yielded significantly lower oocyst viability. However, when the Dose parameter was considered (energy per volume unit), no statistically significant differences in oocyst viability were observed in relation to the type of mode used. The results demonstrate that ultrasound technology represents a promising alternative to the disinfection methods (ultraviolet irradiation and chlorine products) currently used in water reclamation as it drastically reduces the survival of Cryptosporidium oocysts, without changing the chemical composition of the water or producing toxic by-products.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Jesús Abeledo-Lameiro
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Elvira Ares-Mazás
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Hipólito Goméz-Couso
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain; Institute of Food Research and Analysis, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain.
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Sánchez C, López MC, Galeano LA, Qvarnstrom Y, Houghton K, Ramírez JD. Molecular detection and genotyping of pathogenic protozoan parasites in raw and treated water samples from southwest Colombia. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:563. [PMID: 30367668 PMCID: PMC6203992 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3147-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Protozoan parasites such as Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp., Cyclospora cayetanensis, Toxoplasma gondii and Entamoeba histolytica represent a great challenge to the systems producing water for human consumption because their cystic forms are persistent in the environment and resist to the disinfection methods conventionally used for their control. In this study, we investigated the presence of these protozoan pathogens in both raw and treated water samples used for the production of drinking water in Nariño Department, southwest Colombia. We collected 110 water samples (10 lof each sample) and analyzed them with real-time PCR (qPCR). qPCR-positive samples were genotyped with PCR and DNA sequencing. RESULTS Giardia duodenalis was detected in 35/110 (31.8%) of the samples and Cryptosporidium spp. in 9/110 (8.2%) of the samples; no sample was positive for T. gondii, E. histolytica or C. cayetanensis. Giardia duodenalis was detected in samples of both raw water (Drinking Water Treatment Plants (DWTP): 47.83%;Drinking Water Rural Plants (DWRP): 18.42%) and water collected either after conventional physicochemical treatment (26.09%) or after disinfection by chlorine (50%), whereas Cryptosporidium spp. were only detected in raw waters (DWTP: 17.39%; DWRP: 13.16%). The two pathogens were detected in both types of treatment plants supplying water to urban areas and to rural zones. Analysis of gdh and tpi markers identified assemblages AI, AII and H of G. duodenalis, while analysis of the small subunit rRNA and gp60 markers of Cryptosporidium-positive samples identified C. parvum (Subtype IIcA5G3c), C. galli, C. molnari, Cryptosporidium sp. genotype II of bats and Cryptosporidium sp. genotype VIII of birds. CONCLUSIONS The results obtained demonstrate the presence of protozoan parasites in the water of the study region, and the need to improve the surveillance systems for these pathogens and identify the corresponding sources of contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Sánchez
- Grupo de Investigación en Materiales Funcionales y Catálisis (GIMFC), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Nariño, 520002 Pasto, Colombia
- Departamento de Salud Pública, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 111321 Bogotá, Colombia
- Grupo de Investigaciones Microbiológicas-UR (GIMUR), Programa de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemáticas, Universidad del Rosario, 110111 Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Myriam Consuelo López
- Departamento de Salud Pública, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 111321 Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Luis Alejandro Galeano
- Grupo de Investigación en Materiales Funcionales y Catálisis (GIMFC), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Nariño, 520002 Pasto, Colombia
| | - Yvonne Qvarnstrom
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, 30329 USA
| | - Katelyn Houghton
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, 30329 USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge, 37830 USA
| | - Juan David Ramírez
- Grupo de Investigaciones Microbiológicas-UR (GIMUR), Programa de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemáticas, Universidad del Rosario, 110111 Bogotá, Colombia
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Boehm AB, Graham KE, Jennings WC. Can We Swim Yet? Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Risk Assessment of Aging Sewage in Surface Waters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:9634-9645. [PMID: 30080397 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b01948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the risk of gastrointestinal illness associated with swimming in surface waters with aged sewage contamination. First, a systematic review compiled 333 first order decay rate constants ( k) for human norovirus and its surrogates feline calicivirus and murine norovirus, Salmonella, Campylobacter, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium, and human-associated indicators in surface water. A meta-analysis investigated effects of sunlight, temperature, and water matrix on k. There was a relatively large number of k for bacterial pathogens and some human-associated indicators ( n > 40), fewer for protozoans ( n = 14-22), and few for human norovirus and its Caliciviridae surrogates ( n = 2-4). Average k ranked: Campylobacter > human-associated markers > Salmonella> E. coli O157:H7 > norovirus and its surrogates > Giardia > Cryptosporidium. Compiled k values were used in a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) to simulate gastrointestinal illness risk associated with swimming in water with aged sewage contamination. The QMRA used human-associated fecal indicator HF183 as an index for the amount of sewage present and thereby provided insight into how risk relates to HF183 concentrations in surface water. Because exposure to norovirus contributed the majority of risk, and HF183 k is greater than norovirus k, the risk associated with exposure to a fixed HF183 concentration increases with the age of contamination. Swimmer exposure to sewage after it has aged ∼3 days results in median risks less than 30/1000. A risk-based water quality threshold for HF183 in surface waters that takes into account uncertainty in contamination age is derived to be 4100 copies/100 mL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandria B Boehm
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Stanford University , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
| | - Katherine E Graham
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Stanford University , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
| | - Wiley C Jennings
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Stanford University , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
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Hamilton KA, Waso M, Reyneke B, Saeidi N, Levine A, Lalancette C, Besner MC, Khan W, Ahmed W. Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Wastewater and Surface Water Environments. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2018; 47:1006-1023. [PMID: 30272766 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2018.04.0132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
and spp. are significant contributors to the global waterborne disease burden. Waterways used as sources of drinking water and for recreational activity can become contaminated through the introduction of fecal materials derived from humans and animals. Multiple studies have reported the occurence or concentrations of these pathogens in the environment. However, this information has not been comprehensively reviewed. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) for and can be beneficial, but it often relies on the concentrations in environmental sources reported from the literature. A thorough literature review was conducted to develop an inventory of reported and concentrations in wastewater and surface water available in the literature. This information can be used to develop QMRA inputs. and (oo)cyst concentrations in untreated wastewater were up to 60,000 oocysts L and 100,000 cysts L, respectively. The maximum reported concentrations for and in surface water were 8400 oocysts L and 1000 cysts L, respectively. A summary of the factors for interpretation of concentration information including common quantification methods, survival and persistence, biofilm interactions, genotyping, and treatment removal is provided in this review. This information can help in identifying assumptions implicit in various QMRA parameters, thus providing the context and rationale to guide model formulation and application. Additionally, it can provide valuable information for water quality practitioners striving to meet the recreational water quality or treatment criteria. The goal is for the information provided in the current review to aid in developing source water protection and monitoring strategies that will minimize public health risks.
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Schmitz BW, Moriyama H, Haramoto E, Kitajima M, Sherchan S, Gerba CP, Pepper IL. Reduction of Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and Fecal Indicators by Bardenpho Wastewater Treatment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:7015-7023. [PMID: 29847105 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b05876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Increased demand for water reuse and reclamation accentuates the importance for optimal wastewater treatment to limit protozoa in effluents. Two wastewater treatment plants utilizing advanced Bardenpho were investigated over a 12-month period to determine the incidence and reduction of Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Cyclospora, and fecal indicators. Results were compared to facilities that previously operated in the same geographical area. Protozoa (oo)cysts were concentrated using an electronegative filter and subsequently detected by fluorescent microscopy and/or PCR methods. Cryptosporidium and Giardia were frequently detected in raw sewage, but Cyclospora was not detected in any wastewater samples. Facilities with Bardenpho treatment exhibited higher removals of (oo)cysts than facilities utilizing activated sludge or trickling filters. This was likely due to Bardenpho systems having increased solid wasting rates; however, this mechanism cannot be confirmed as sludge samples were not analyzed. Use of dissolved-air-flotation instead of sedimentation tanks did not result in more efficient removal of (oo)cysts. Concentrations of protozoa were compared with each other, Escherichia coli, somatic coliphage, and viruses (pepper mild mottle virus, Aichi virus 1, adenovirus, and polyomaviruses JC and BK). Although significant correlations were rare, somatic coliphage showed the highest potential as an indicator for the abundance of protozoa in wastewaters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley W Schmitz
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering , National University of Singapore , Block E1A, #07-03, No. 1 Engineering Drive 2 , Singapore , 117576
| | - Hitoha Moriyama
- Department of Environmental Sciences , University of Yamanashi , 4-3-11 Takeda , Kofu , Yamanashi 400-8511 , Japan
| | - Eiji Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment , University of Yamanashi , 4-3-11 Takeda , Kofu , Yamanashi 400-8511 , Japan
| | - Masaaki Kitajima
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering , Hokkaido University , North 13 West 8 , Kita-ku, Sapporo , Hokkaido 060-8628 , Japan
| | - Samendra Sherchan
- Department of Global Environmental Health Services , Tulane University of Louisiana , 1440 Canal Street Suite 2100 , New Orleans , Louisiana 70112 , United States
| | - Charles P Gerba
- Water and Energy Sustainable Technology (WEST) Center , The University of Arizona , 2959 West Calle Agua Nueva , Tucson , Arizona 85745 , United States
| | - Ian L Pepper
- Water and Energy Sustainable Technology (WEST) Center , The University of Arizona , 2959 West Calle Agua Nueva , Tucson , Arizona 85745 , United States
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Chuah CJ, Ziegler AD. Temporal Variability of Faecal Contamination from On-Site Sanitation Systems in the Groundwater of Northern Thailand. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2018; 61:939-953. [PMID: 29508021 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-018-1016-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the impacts of on-site sanitation systems to local groundwater. In this year-long study, we monitored the response of faecal contamination levels to hydroclimatological factors including rainfall and groundwater table. Concentration of faecal indicators-E. coli (ESC), Enterococcus (ENT), nitrate-in thirteen pairs of shallow and deep wells were determined every 7-14 days. All samples from shallow wells were tested positive for faecal contamination (ESC and ENT > 1 MPN/100 mL) but concentration varies. A maximum of 24,000 MPN/100 mL were recorded in some shallow wells. Water from deep wells showed lower susceptibility to contamination with only 4 and 23% of samples tested positive for ESC and ENT, respectively. Concentrations of ESC and ENT were lower too, with a maximum of 5 MPN/100 mL and 28 MPN/100 mL, respectively. Fluctuation in contamination among the wells was described by four archetypal responses to hydroclimatological forcing: (i) flushing during the onset of wet season, (ii) dilution over the course of the wet season, (iii) concentration during the dry season, and (iv) synoptic response to storms. Previous studies attempting to link the prevalence of faecal/waterborne diseases and temporal factors (e.g., dry vs wet season) have produced differing outcomes. Our study may help explain the relevant hydrological mechanisms leading to these varying observations. Presently, most communities in Thailand have access to 'improved' sanitation systems. However, due to the unsustainable implementation of these systems, the otherwise viable drinking-water resources in the form of the abundant local groundwater has become a genuine health hazard.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Joon Chuah
- Department of Geography, National University of Singapore, AS2, #03-01, 1 Arts Link, Kent Ridge, 117570, Singapore, Singapore.
- Institute of Water Policy, National University of Singapore, 469A Bukit Timah Rd, 259772, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Alan D Ziegler
- Department of Geography, National University of Singapore, AS2, #03-01, 1 Arts Link, Kent Ridge, 117570, Singapore, Singapore
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Kong FE, Deighton MA, Thurbon NA, Smith SR, Rouch DA. Cryptosporidium parvum decay during air drying and stockpiling of mesophilic anaerobically digested sewage sludge in a simulation experiment and oocyst counts in sludge collected from operational treatment lagoons in Victoria, Australia. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2018; 16:435-448. [PMID: 29952332 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2018.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The inactivation of Cryptosporidium species oocysts during sewage sludge treatment is important to protect human health when the residual biosolids are applied to agricultural land. Quantifying the decay of Cryptosporidium species during sludge treatment for microbiological assurance purposes is difficult if low numbers are present in wastewater. The rate of decay of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts during solar/air drying treatment and in sludge stockpiles in temperate environment conditions was simulated in laboratory inoculation experiments using sludge sampled from a mesophilic anaerobic digester. Oocyst numbers were also determined in settled lagoon sludge samples collected from three operational rural wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). C. parvum oocysts were enumerated by immunomagnetic separation followed by staining with vital dyes and examination by confocal laser scanning microscopy. An air-drying/storage period equivalent to 11 weeks was required for a 1 log10 reduction of viable oocysts inoculated into digested sludge. Oocyst viability in air-dried and stored digested sludge decreased with time, but was independent of sludge desiccation and dry solids (DS) content. No oocysts were detected in sludge samples collected from the anaerobic digester, and the average concentration of oocysts found in settled lagoon sludge from the rural WWTP was 4.6 × 102 oocysts/g DS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederic E Kong
- Biotechnology and Environmental Biology, School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, Plenty Road, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia E-mail: ;
| | - Margaret A Deighton
- Biotechnology and Environmental Biology, School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, Plenty Road, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia E-mail: ;
| | - Nerida A Thurbon
- Biotechnology and Environmental Biology, School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, Plenty Road, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia E-mail: ;
| | - Stephen R Smith
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Duncan A Rouch
- Biotechnology and Environmental Biology, School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, Plenty Road, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia E-mail: ;
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Haramoto E, Kitajima M, Hata A, Torrey JR, Masago Y, Sano D, Katayama H. A review on recent progress in the detection methods and prevalence of human enteric viruses in water. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 135:168-186. [PMID: 29471200 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 244] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Waterborne human enteric viruses, such as noroviruses and adenoviruses, are excreted in the feces of infected individuals and transmitted via the fecal-oral route including contaminated food and water. Since viruses are normally present at low concentrations in aquatic environments, they should be concentrated into smaller volumes prior to downstream molecular biological applications, such as quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). This review describes recent progress made in the development of concentration and detection methods of human enteric viruses in water, and discusses their applications for providing a better understanding of the prevalence of the viruses in various types of water worldwide. Maximum concentrations of human enteric viruses in water that have been reported in previous studies are summarized to assess viral abundances in aquatic environments. Some descriptions are also available on recent applications of sequencing analyses used to determine the genetic diversity of viral genomes in water samples, including those of novel viruses. Furthermore, the importance and significance of utilizing appropriate process controls during viral analyses are discussed, and three types of process controls are considered: whole process controls, molecular process controls, and (reverse transcription (RT)-)qPCR controls. Although no standards have been established for acceptable values of virus recovery and/or extraction-(RT-)qPCR efficiency, use of at least one of these appropriate control types is highly recommended for more accurate interpretation of observed data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eiji Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan.
| | - Masaaki Kitajima
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13 West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan.
| | - Akihiko Hata
- Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science, Institutes for Advanced Study, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan.
| | - Jason R Torrey
- School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Yoshifumi Masago
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability, United Nations University, 5-53-70 Jingumae, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo 150-8925, Japan.
| | - Daisuke Sano
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-06, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8579, Japan.
| | - Hiroyuki Katayama
- Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan; Vietnam Japan University, Luu Huu Phuoc Road, My Dinh 1 Ward, Nam Tu Liem District, Ha Noi, Vietnam.
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Presence of Human Enteric Viruses, Protozoa, and Indicators of Pathogens in the Bagmati River, Nepal. Pathogens 2018; 7:pathogens7020038. [PMID: 29642411 PMCID: PMC6027487 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens7020038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2018] [Revised: 04/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantification of waterborne pathogens in water sources is essential for alerting the community about health hazards. This study determined the presence of human enteric viruses and protozoa in the Bagmati River, Nepal, and detected fecal indicator bacteria (total coliforms, Escherichia coli, and Enterococcus spp.), human-fecal markers (human Bacteroidales and JC and BK polyomaviruses), and index viruses (tobacco mosaic virus and pepper mild mottle virus). During a one-year period between October 2015 and September 2016, a total of 18 surface water samples were collected periodically from three sites along the river. Using quantitative polymerase chain reaction, all eight types of human enteric viruses tested—including adenoviruses, noroviruses, and enteroviruses, were detected frequently at the midstream and downstream sites, with concentrations of 4.4–8.3 log copies/L. Enteroviruses and saliviruses were the most frequently detected enteric viruses, which were present in 72% (13/18) of the tested samples. Giardia spp. were detected by fluorescence microscopy in 78% (14/18) of the samples, with a lower detection ratio at the upstream site. Cryptosporidium spp. were detected only at the midstream and downstream sites, with a positive ratio of 39% (7/18). The high concentrations of enteric viruses suggest that the midstream and downstream regions are heavily contaminated with human feces and that there are alarming possibilities of waterborne diseases. The concentrations of enteric viruses were significantly higher in the dry season than the wet season (p < 0.05). There was a significant positive correlation between the concentrations of human enteric viruses and the tested indicators for the presence of pathogens (IPP) (p < 0.05), suggesting that these IPP can be used to estimate the presence of enteric viruses in the Bagmati River water.
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Kitajima M, Rachmadi AT, Iker BC, Haramoto E, Gerba CP. Temporal variations in genotype distribution of human sapoviruses and Aichi virus 1 in wastewater in Southern Arizona, United States. J Appl Microbiol 2018; 124:1324-1332. [PMID: 29377502 DOI: 10.1111/jam.13712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the molecular epidemiology, especially temporal variations in genotype distribution, of sapoviruses and Aichi virus 1 (AiV-1) in Arizona, United States, by examining wastewater. METHODS AND RESULTS A total of 26 wastewater samples (13 influent and 13 effluent) were collected monthly from a wastewater treatment plant and viral strains were identified through nested reverse transcription-PCR followed by cloning and sequencing analysis. Identified sapovirus strains were classified into seven genotypes belonging to three genogroups (GI, GII, and GV): GI.1, GI.2, GI.3, GII.1, GII.2, GII.8 and GV.1, with a clear temporal shift. The majority of AiV-1 strains identified from the wastewater samples were classified into genotype B, and genotype A strains were identified in only two samples. CONCLUSIONS We identified a number of sapovirus and AiV-1 strains belonging to multiple genotypes in wastewater samples collected over a 13-month period. Our results suggested a temporal shift in prevalent genotypes in the community. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This is the first study elucidating the genotype distribution of human sapoviruses and AiV-1 in wastewater in the United States. Wastewater surveillance is especially useful for understanding molecular epidemiology of viruses that are less commonly tested in clinical diagnosis, including sapoviruses and AiV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kitajima
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - A T Rachmadi
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - B C Iker
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - E Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, Kofu, Yamanashi, Japan
| | - C P Gerba
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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Brown KI, Graham KE, Soller JA, Boehm AB. Estimating the probability of illness due to swimming in recreational water with a mixture of human- and gull-associated microbial source tracking markers. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2017; 19:1528-1541. [PMID: 29114693 DOI: 10.1039/c7em00316a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Beaches often receive fecal contamination from more than one source. Human sources include untreated sewage as well as treated wastewater effluent, and animal sources include wildlife such as gulls. Different contamination sources are expected to pose different health risks to swimmers. Genetic microbial source tracking (MST) markers can be used to detect bacteria that are associated with different animal sources, but the health risks associated with a mixture of MST markers are unknown. This study presents a method for predicting these health risks, using human- and gull-associated markers as an example. Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) is conducted with MST markers as indicators. We find that risks associated with exposure to a specific concentration of a human-associated MST marker (HF) are greater if the HF source is untreated sewage rather than treated wastewater effluent. We also provide a risk-based threshold of HF from untreated sewage at a beach, to stay below a predicted illness risk of 3 per 100 swimmers, that is a function of gull-associated MST marker (CAT) concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kendra I Brown
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Environmental Engineering and Science, Stanford University, 94305-4020, USA.
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