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Sadutto D, Picó Y. Validation of LC-MS/MS method for opioid monitoring in Valencia City wastewater: Assessment of synthetic wastewater as potential aid. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 946:174382. [PMID: 38955278 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
In this study, a comprehensive and sensitive method for the simultaneous detection of 17 opioids (OPs) and their human metabolites in wastewater using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry was validated. The chromatographic separations of opioids were carried out on a Kinetex® Biphenyl column (1.7 μm, 100 Å, 50 × 2.1 mm). A synthetic wastewater approach was used for recovery studies to mimic a contaminant-free matrix. Two solid-phase extraction (SPE) sorbents (hydrophilic-lipophilic balance and mixed mode with the previous phase and a weak cationic exchange) were studied to optimize sample treatment and obtain higher recoveries. The mixed mode was chosen because the recoveries of 17 target analytes at three spiked concentrations (25, 50, and 100 ng mL-1) were > 80 % for 75 % of the analytes in a simulated wastewater. The intra- and inter-day relative standard deviations (RSDs) were between ±1 % and ±20 %. The method limits of quantification ranged from 5 to 25 ng L-1, the only exceptions being heroin (275 ng L-1) and morphine-3β-glucuronide (250 ng L-1). Suppression/enhancement is comparable between the synthetic and the influent wastewater. The analytical method was applied to the OPs analysis in twenty-one influent samples collected from the treatment plants treating the wastewater of Valencia City (Spain). Twelve OPs were detected with total daily concentrations ranging from 1 ng L-1 to 2135 ng L-1. The widespread presence of these compounds in water suggests potential widespread exposure, highlighting the need for increased environmental awareness. Furthermore, the estimated daily intake results raise concerns about opioid use as a potential future health and social issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Sadutto
- Centre for the Control and Evaluation of Medicines, Chemical Medicines Unit, Istituto Superiore di Sanita', Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Yolanda Picó
- Environmental and Food Safety Research Group of the University of Valencia (SAMA-UV), Research Center on Desertification (CIDE), CSIC-UV-GV, Moncada-Naquera Road km 4.5, 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spain
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2
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Aggerbeck MR, Frøkjær EE, Johansen A, Ellegaard-Jensen L, Hansen LH, Hansen M. Non-target analysis of Danish wastewater treatment plant effluent: Statistical analysis of chemical fingerprinting as a step toward a future monitoring tool. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 257:119242. [PMID: 38821457 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.119242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/26/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
In an attempt to discover and characterize the plethora of xenobiotic substances, this study investigates chemical compounds released into the environment with wastewater effluents. A novel non-targeted screening methodology based on ultra-high resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry and nanoflow ultra-high performance liquid chromatography together with a newly optimized data-processing pipeline were applied to effluent samples from two state-of-the-art and one small wastewater treatment facility. In total, 785 molecular structures were obtained, of which 38 were identified as single compounds, while 480 structures were identified at a putative level. Most of these substances were therapeutics and drugs, present as parent compounds and metabolites. Using R packages Phyloseq and MetacodeR, originally developed for bioinformatics, significant differences in xenobiotic presence in the wastewater effluents between the three sites were demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Rønne Aggerbeck
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark; Aarhus University Centre for Water Technology (WATEC), Aarhus University, Vejlsøvej 25, 8600, Silkeborg, Denmark.
| | - Emil Egede Frøkjær
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Anders Johansen
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark; Aarhus University Centre for Water Technology (WATEC), Aarhus University, Vejlsøvej 25, 8600, Silkeborg, Denmark; Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg, Denmark; Aarhus University Centre for Circular Bioeconomy, Aarhus University, 8830 Tjele, Denmark
| | - Lea Ellegaard-Jensen
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark; Aarhus University Centre for Water Technology (WATEC), Aarhus University, Vejlsøvej 25, 8600, Silkeborg, Denmark
| | - Lars Hestbjerg Hansen
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Martin Hansen
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark; Aarhus University Centre for Water Technology (WATEC), Aarhus University, Vejlsøvej 25, 8600, Silkeborg, Denmark.
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3
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Mosharaf MK, Gomes RL, Cook S, Alam MS, Rasmusssen A. Wastewater reuse and pharmaceutical pollution in agriculture: Uptake, transport, accumulation and metabolism of pharmaceutical pollutants within plants. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 364:143055. [PMID: 39127189 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.143055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2024] [Revised: 08/02/2024] [Accepted: 08/06/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024]
Abstract
The presence of pharmaceutical pollutants in water sources has become a growing concern due to its potential impacts on human health and other organisms. The physicochemical properties of pharmaceuticals based on their intended therapeutical application, which include antibiotics, hormones, analgesics, and antidepressants, is quite diverse. Their presence in wastewater, sewerage water, surface water, ground water and even in drinking water is reported by many researchers throughout the world. Human exposure to these pollutants through drinking water or consumption of aquatic and terrestrial organisms has raised concerns about potential adverse effects, such as endocrine disruption, antibiotic resistance, and developmental abnormalities. Once in the environment, they can persist, undergo transformation, or degrade, leading to a complex mixture of contaminants. Application of treated wastewater, compost, manures or biosolids in agricultural fields introduce pharmaceutical pollutants in the environment. As pharmaceuticals are diverse in nature, significant differences are observed during their uptake and accumulation in plants. While there have been extensive studies on aquatic ecosystems, the effect on agricultural land is more disparate. As of now, there are few reports available on the potential of plant uptake and transportation of pharmaceuticals within and between plant organs. This review summarizes the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in aquatic water bodies at a range of concentrations and their uptake, accumulation, and transport within plant tissues. Research gaps on pharmaceutical pollutants' specific effect on plant growth and future research scopes are highlighted. The factors affecting uptake of pharmaceuticals including hydrophobicity, ionization, physicochemical properties (pKa, logKow, pH, Henry's law constant) are discussed. Finally, metabolism of pharmaceuticals within plant cells through metabolism phase enzymes and plant responses to pharmaceuticals are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Khaled Mosharaf
- Agriculture and Environmental Sciences Division, School of Biosciences, Sutton Bonington, University of Nottingham, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom; Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur, 1706, Bangladesh.
| | - Rachel L Gomes
- Food Water Waste Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Cook
- Water and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Mohammed S Alam
- Agriculture and Environmental Sciences Division, School of Biosciences, Sutton Bonington, University of Nottingham, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom
| | - Amanda Rasmusssen
- Agriculture and Environmental Sciences Division, School of Biosciences, Sutton Bonington, University of Nottingham, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom
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4
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Zhou J, Ding S, Sandhu SS, Chang AY, Taechamahaphan A, Gudekar S, Wang J. Submersible voltammetric sensing probe for rapid and extended remote monitoring of opioids in community water systems. Mikrochim Acta 2024; 191:463. [PMID: 38995455 PMCID: PMC11245449 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-024-06520-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
The intensifying global opioid crisis, majorly attributed to fentanyl (FT) and its analogs, has necessitated the development of rapid and ultrasensitive remote/on-site FT sensing modalities. However, current approaches for tracking FT exposure through wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) are unadaptable, time-consuming, and require trained professionals. Toward developing an extended in situ wastewater opioid monitoring system, we have developed a screen-printed electrochemical FT sensor and integrated it with a customized submersible remote sensing probe. The sensor composition and design have been optimized to address the challenges for extended in situ FT monitoring. Specifically, ZIF-8 metal-organic framework (MOF)-derived mesoporous carbon (MPC) nanoparticles (NPs) are incorporated in the screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) transducer to improve FT accumulation and its electrocatalytic oxidation. A rapid (10 s) and sensitive square wave voltammetric (SWV) FT detection down to 9.9 µgL-1 is thus achieved in aqueous buffer solution. A protective mixed-matrix membrane (MMM) has been optimized as the anti-fouling sensor coating to mitigate electrode passivation by FT oxidation products and enable long-term, intermittent FT monitoring. The unique MMM, comprising an insulating polyvinyl chloride (PVC) matrix and carboxyl-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNT-COOH) as semiconductive fillers, yielded highly stable FT sensor operation (> 95% normalized response) up to 10 h in domestic wastewater, and up to 4 h in untreated river water. This sensing platform enables wireless data acquisition on a smartphone via Bluetooth. Such effective remote operation of submersible opioid sensing probes could enable stricter surveillance of community water systems toward timely alerts, countermeasures, and legal enforcement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiachi Zhou
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Shichao Ding
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Samar S Sandhu
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - An-Yi Chang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Anubhap Taechamahaphan
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Shipra Gudekar
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.
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Ceolotto N, Jagadeesan K, Xu L, Standerwick R, Robertson M, Barden R, Barnett J, Kasprzyk-Hordern B. Understanding treatment of pain during SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in a two-year intercity longitudinal study using wastewater-based epidemiology. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 471:134121. [PMID: 38636235 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 pandemic had a significant impact on the society, economy, and health of people around the world with consequences that need to be better understood for future pandemic preparedness. This manuscript provides insights into the usage of pharmaceuticals for pain treatment management throughout SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Four towns and cities with a total population of > 1 million people covering an area of 2000 km2 in South West England were monitored for twenty-four months. Results showed different patterns in pain pharma usage, with small towns having higher population normalised daily loads (PNDLs) than big cities for majority of pain killers studied. This is likely due to demographics of these cities with smaller cities having older population. Per capita consumption of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) increased compared to pre-pandemic usage in line with SARS-CoV-2 infections (ibuprofen and acetaminophen), while body pain drugs (diclofenac and naproxen) decreased in line with restrictions and closure of sports facilities. Changes in population normalised daily intake (PNDI) of pain killers were particularly apparent during the 1st and 3rd national lockdown. Comparison of PNDIs with prescriptions highlighted differences related to medication availability (OTC drugs) and patients' nonadherence (prescribed drugs). In addition, several instances of direct disposal events across the catchments were observed which raises an issue of lack of pharma compliance and general understanding of potential environmental impacts from pharma usage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Ceolotto
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; Institute for Sustainability, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | | | - Like Xu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Richard Standerwick
- Wessex Water, Bath BA2 7WW, UK; Environment Agency, Horizon House, Deanery Road, Bristol, UK
| | | | | | - Julie Barnett
- Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
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6
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Luo X, Han S, Wang Y, Du P, Li X, Thai PK. Significant differences in usage of antibiotics in three Chinese cities measured by wastewater-based epidemiology. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 254:121335. [PMID: 38417269 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Antibiotic use, particularly inappropriate use by irrational prescribing or over-the-counter purchases, is of great concern for China as it facilitates the spread of antibiotic resistances. In this study, we applied wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) to monitor the total consumption of eight common antibiotics in three cities in northern, eastern and southern China. Wastewater samples were successively collected from 17 wastewater treatment plants including weekdays and weekends spanning four seasons between 2019 and 2021. The concentration of antibiotics and their corresponding metabolites showed a significant correlation, confirming the measured antibiotics were actually consumed. Different seasonal trends in antibiotic use were found among the cities. It was more prevalent in the winter in the northern city Beijing, with the high antibiotic consumption attributed to peak influenza occurrence in the city. This is clear evidence of irrational prescription of antibiotics since it's known that antibiotics do little to treat influenza. In terms of overall consumption, Foshan is significantly lower, thanks to warmer climate and higher use of herbal tea as a prevention measure. WBE estimates of antibiotic consumption were relatively comparable with other data sources, with azithromycin as the top antibiotic measured here. The studied cities had higher WBE estimated antibiotics consumption than results of previous studies in the literature. Monitoring antibiotic use in different areas and periods through WBE in combination with complementary information, can better inform appropriate antibiotic guideline policies in various regions and nations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaozhe Luo
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, PR China
| | - Sheng Han
- Fujian Water Resource Investment and Development Group Co., Ltd., 350001, Fuzhou, China
| | - Yue Wang
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, PR China
| | - Peng Du
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Urban Hydrological Cycle and Sponge City Technology, College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, PR China.
| | - Xiqing Li
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, PR China
| | - Phong K Thai
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4102, Australia
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7
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Ning H, Fan Y, Chen H, Liu H, Huang Z, Ke X, Xu Y, She Y. Preparation of mixed-mode weak cation exchange magnetic solid-phase extraction sorbent and its application in the extraction of 21 illicit drugs from wastewater. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 464:133007. [PMID: 37984142 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.133007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
The detection of illicit drugs in wastewater can effectively monitor and evaluate the trend of illicit drug abuse. A novel mixed-mode cation exchange magnetic sorbent Fe3O4 @poly(ST/DVB/MA-COOH) was prepared and firstly applied as magnetically dispersed solid phase extraction material to efficiently, rapidly, and selectively extract 21 illicit drugs from wastewater. The selectivity of the sorbent was mainly attributed to the electrostatic interaction. The effects of Fe3O4 @poly(ST/DVB/MA-COOH) preparation and extraction conditions on the adsorption performance were thoroughly discussed. Among the 21 illicit drugs, the absolute extraction recovery values for 19 illicit drugs were greater than 80 % and the entire adsorption process could be achieved in one minute. Subsequently, the Fe3O4 @poly(ST/DVB/MA-COOH) sorbent combined with UHPLC-MS/MS was used to establish a quantitative method for the effectively extracted 19 illicit drugs in wastewater. The method had a good determination coefficient in the range of 0.2-200 ng/L and the limits of detection of the method were 0.03-0.67 ng/L. The spiked recovery values were in the range of 87.0-119.6 %. Finally, the method was successfully applied to the detection of 19 illicit drugs in wastewater samples and also compared with the commonly used SPE method. The obtained results indicate that Fe3O4 @poly(ST/DVB/MA-COOH) has great advantages in the detection of illicit drugs in wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyu Ning
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Yilei Fan
- Key Laboratory of Drug Prevention and Control Technology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Police College, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Hao Chen
- Key Laboratory of Drug Prevention and Control Technology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Police College, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Huijun Liu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Zhongping Huang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China.
| | - Xing Ke
- Key Laboratory of Drug Prevention and Control Technology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Police College, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Yu Xu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control of Zhejiang Province, National Anti-Drug Laboratory Zhejiang Regional Center, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Yuanbin She
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China.
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8
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Giommoni L. How to improve the surveillance of the Taliban ban's impact on European drug markets. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2024; 124:104320. [PMID: 38219675 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2024.104320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
In April 2023, the Taliban banned poppy cultivation and the trade of all narcotics. This caused a 95% reduction in opium production. Usually, that would be good news. But there is a substantial worry: synthetic opioids might fill the void left by heroin. This is concerning because these drugs have led to health emergencies in areas where they are prevalent. This paper highlights the limitations of the current drug surveillance system in Europe and proposes improvements. It argues that reliance on secondary data is insufficient. Instead, we need to interview a sentinel group of people who inject drugs and adjust city-level sentinel systems, such as wastewater analysis, to specifically track the spread of synthetic opioids. Without these proactive steps, we risk only noticing a transition from heroin to synthetic opioids after it has occurred, with its harmful impacts already in place.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Giommoni
- School of Social Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom.
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Wang Z, Mueller JF, O'Brien JW, Thompson J, Tscharke BJ, Verhagen R, Zheng Q, Prichard J, Hall W, Humphreys K, Thomas KV, Thai PK. Monitoring medication and illicit drug consumption in a prison by wastewater-based epidemiology: Impact of COVID-19 restrictions. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 244:120452. [PMID: 37604019 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Drug consumption in prisons is a concern for the safety of incarcerated people and staff. Typically, drug use prevalence in prisons is estimated through urinalysis and intelligence operations, which can be intrusive and stressful. An alternative approach, wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), was used in this study to estimate the consumption of licit and illicit drugs for the entire population of a prison in Australia. Wastewater samples were collected from March to December 2020, covering periods of no restrictions and periods when prison access was restricted to prevent the transmission of COVID-19. Target biomarkers were analysed by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The average consumption of common illicit drugs (MDMA, methamphetamine and cocaine) over the sampling period in the prison (0.5 - 4.5 mg/1000 people/day) was two to three orders of magnitude lower than in the community population (254 - 1000 mg/1000 people/day). Comparison of WBE estimates against pharmacy dispensing data suggested potential illicit buprenorphine consumption at the prison. Methamphetamine and buprenorphine use decreased when no visitors were allowed (18% - 72% decrease for methamphetamine; about half decrease for buprenorphine) and increased once these restrictions were eased (22% - 39% increase for methamphetamine; 44% - 67% increase for buprenorphine). The changes in drug use may be attributed in part to a reduction of drug trafficking into the prison from visitors or non-essential staffs and in part to the reduced contribution of urine from staff who used toilets within the prison. This study provided useful information on the scale of illicit drug use and extra-medical use of licit drugs in prison, and its changes under different security conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Wang
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Jochen F Mueller
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Jake W O'Brien
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Jack Thompson
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia; Organic Chemistry, Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services (QHFSS), 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4171, Australia
| | - Benjamin J Tscharke
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Rory Verhagen
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Qiuda Zheng
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Jeremy Prichard
- Faculty of Law, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 30, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Wayne Hall
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Keith Humphreys
- Center for Innovation to Implementation, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Heath Care System, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, USA
| | - Kevin V Thomas
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Phong K Thai
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia.
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10
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Chang WCW, Hsu MC, Liao PC. Detection of emerging patterns of drug misuse in sports via wastewater monitoring: A mini-review and potential strategies. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 333:122087. [PMID: 37348696 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
Biological testing is a key component of the current anti-doping programme implemented by the authorities to detect doping in sports. Strategies such as longitudinal individualised data analysis and sport-specific analysis have been developed to increase the comprehensiveness of the testing. However, the trends of drug misuse in sports might not be effectively captured through today's testing plan. Wastewater testing, assembling individual-level data of a designated group to produce population-level results in one single aggregated sample, can be employed to as a complementary strategy offering added value for doping control. This paper presents an updated summary of the status of anti-doping testing and analytical methodologies for wastewater. The available literature on wastewater-based analyses of drugs prohibited in sports is reviewed. Publications surrounding sporting activities or competitions and others relevant to sports doping are selected. We debate between potential strategies and major limitations of using wastewater monitoring in anti-doping. Knowledge gaps and research directions, specifically on metabolites, stability, sensitivity, and ethical and legal considerations, are discussed. Choosing different wastewater sampling sites allows target sub-population that involved competing athletes and potentially reveal sport-specific or athlete-level-specific behaviour. Sampling from on-board toilets or athlete villages could target international-level athletes, sampling from the dormitories of national training centres allows monitoring of national-level athletes on a daily basis, and sampling from sports stadiums provides a full picture of drug use in the general population during an event. Confounding occurs as (i) the presence of non-athlete composition and the difficulty of analyses to be completely selective to the athlete population; and (ii) the identification of compounds prescribed legitimately with Therapeutic Use Exemptions, only banned in-competition, and naturally occurring. The practicalities of the approach are contextualised in monitoring the non-threshold substances such as anabolic agents, selective androgen receptor modulators, metabolic modulators, and hypoxia-inducible factor activators.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Chih-Wei Chang
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 807, Taiwan; College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 807, Taiwan.
| | - Mei-Chich Hsu
- Department of Sports Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 807, Taiwan.
| | - Pao-Chi Liao
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 704, Taiwan.
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11
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Lu H, Liu W, Zhang H, Yang J, Liu Y, Chen M, Guo C, Sun X, Xu J. Investigation on consumption of psychoactive substances and their ecological risks using wastewater-based epidemiology: a case study on Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:21815-21824. [PMID: 36279058 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-23744-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the third pole of the world, and information on the consumption of psychoactive substances (PSs) in this area is scarce. In this study, we selected Qinghai Province as the research area, and the per capita consumption and prevalence of PSs were investigated using wastewater-based epidemiology. Samples from 17 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in 5 major cities in Qinghai Province were monitored, and 11 PSs were detected by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Results showed that the target compounds were detected in all samples, with relatively high concentrations of ephedrine (2.1-4825.3 ng/L) and methamphetamine (1.5-295.7 ng/L). The consumption of methamphetamine in Xining City, Haidong City, and Haixi City was up to 78.4, 16.8, and 21.2 mg/1000 inh/d (the PS consumption per 1000 inhabitants in 1 day), respectively, higher than that in the other two cities, which was the result of the different consumption patterns and its relationship with the economic levels of each city. High consumption of methadone (47.9 mg/1000 inh/day) was found in Xining City, which might be related to the methadone maintenance therapy sites in the city. Methamphetamine was the most prevalent drug, with the prevalence ranging from 0.003 (Guoluo) to 0.197% (Xining), and the prevalence of other PSs was low. The ecological risk assessment of PSs in the effluent of WWTPs showed that methadone exerted a low risk to aquatic organisms in three sites, while other substances posed potential risk or no risk. However, the long-term effect of PSs cannot be ignored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haijian Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Wenxiu Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Heng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Jiangtao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Yang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Miao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Changsheng Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Xiaolei Sun
- Akesu Regional Environment Monitoring Centre, Akesu, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, 843000, China
| | - Jian Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China.
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China.
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12
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Ehirim T, Ozoemena OC, Mwonga PV, Haruna AB, Mofokeng TP, De Wael K, Ozoemena KI. Onion-like Carbons Provide a Favorable Electrocatalytic Platform for the Sensitive Detection of Tramadol Drug. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:47892-47905. [PMID: 36591171 PMCID: PMC9798499 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c05722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
This work reports the first study on the possible application of nanodiamond-derived onion-like carbons (OLCs), in comparison with conductive carbon black (CB), as an electrode platform for the electrocatalytic detection of tramadol (an important drug of abuse). The physicochemical properties of OLCs and CB were determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The OLC exhibits, among others, higher surface area, more surface defects, and higher thermal stability than CB. From the electrochemical analysis (interrogated using cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy), it is shown that an OLC-modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE-OLC) allows faster electron transport and electrocatalysis toward tramadol compared to a GCE-CB. To establish the underlying science behind the high performance of the OLC, theoretical calculations (density functional theory (DFT) simulations) were conducted. DFT predicts that OLC allows for weaker surface binding of tramadol (E ad = -26.656 eV) and faster kinetic energy (K.E. = -155.815 Ha) than CB (E ad = -40.174 eV and -305.322 Ha). The GCE-OLC shows a linear calibration curve for tramadol over the range of ∼55 to 392 μM, with high sensitivity (0.0315 μA/μM) and low limit of detection (LoD) and quantification (LoQ) (3.8 and 12.7 μM, respectively). The OLC-modified screen-printed electrode (SPE-OLC) was successfully applied for the sensitive detection of tramadol in real pharmaceutical formulations and human serum. The OLC-based electrochemical sensor promises to be useful for the sensitive and accurate detection of tramadol in clinics, quality control, and routine quantification of tramadol drugs in pharmaceutical formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobechukwu
J. Ehirim
- Molecular
Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg2050, South Africa
| | - Okoroike C. Ozoemena
- Molecular
Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg2050, South Africa
| | - Patrick V. Mwonga
- Molecular
Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg2050, South Africa
| | - Aderemi B. Haruna
- Molecular
Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg2050, South Africa
| | - Thapelo P. Mofokeng
- Molecular
Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg2050, South Africa
| | - Karolien De Wael
- A-Sense
Lab, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020Antwerp, Belgium
- NANOlab
Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Kenneth I. Ozoemena
- Molecular
Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg2050, South Africa
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13
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Garduño-Jiménez AL, Durán-Álvarez JC, Cortés-Lagunes RS, Barrett DA, Gomes RL. Translating wastewater reuse for irrigation from OECD Guidelines: Tramadol sorption and desorption in soil-water matrices. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 305:135031. [PMID: 35605731 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Treated and untreated wastewater is often used for agricultural irrigation and, despite the many benefits of this practice, it poses the risk of biologically active chemical pollutants (such as pharmaceuticals, like tramadol) entering the environment. The partitioning of tramadol between soil/water at environmentally relevant concentrations is important to understand its environmental toxicity. Kinetics and isotherm sorption studies based on the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 106 Guideline were undertaken, ensuring comparability to previous studies. Studies were undertaken in three soils of different characteristics using aqueous concentrations of tramadol from 500 ng L-1 (environmentally relevant) to 100 μg L-1 (comparable to previous studies). Two of the soils presented a significantly (p < 0.05) higher sorption at a lower initial tramadol concentration (5000 ng L-1), compared to 20,000 ng L-1. Hysteresis was observed in all studied soils, indicating the accumulation of tramadol. Higher sorption to soils correlated with higher clay content, with soil/water partitioning coefficients (Kd) of 5.5 ± 13.3, 2.5 ± 3.8 and 0.9 ± 3.0 L kg1 for soils with clay contents of 41.9%, 24.5% and 7.4%, respectively. Cation exchange was proposed as the main sorption mechanism for tramadol to soils when the pH was below tramadol's pKa values (9.41 and 13.08). A comparative kinetics study between tramadol in soil/calcium chloride buffer and soil/wastewater effluent demonstrated significantly higher (p < 0.05) tramadol sorption to soil from wastewater effluent. This has the environmental implication that clay soils will be able to retain tramadol from irrigation water, despite the organic content of the irrigation water. Therefore, our studies show that tramadol soil sorption is likely to be higher in agricultural environments reusing wastewater than that predicted from experiments using the OECD 106 Guideline calcium chloride buffer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea-Lorena Garduño-Jiménez
- Food Water Waste Research Group. Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottinghamshire, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Juan Carlos Durán-Álvarez
- Instituto de Ciencias Aplicadas y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior S/N, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacan, Ciudad de México, 04510, Mexico
| | - Ruth Silvana Cortés-Lagunes
- Instituto de Ciencias Aplicadas y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior S/N, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacan, Ciudad de México, 04510, Mexico
| | - David A Barrett
- Centre for Analytical Bioscience, Advanced Materials and Healthcare Technologies Division, School of Pharmacy University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottinghamshire, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel L Gomes
- Food Water Waste Research Group. Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottinghamshire, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom.
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Shao XT, Zhang PY, Liu SY, Lin JG, Tan DQ, Wang DG. Assessment of correlations between sildenafil use and comorbidities and lifestyle factors using wastewater-based epidemiology. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 218:118446. [PMID: 35462261 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Sildenafil (SIL) is widely used to treat erectile dysfunction. Information on its consumption and the factors influencing its use is limited in China. In this study, we sampled composite influent wastewater samples from 33 Chinese cities and analyzed SIL using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. SIL consumption was estimated using wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) and ranged from 10.6 mg/d/1000 people to 132 mg/d/1000 people, with a mean of 53 mg/d/1000 people. Prescription sales (3570 kg) accounted for 13.3% of the estimated SIL use (26842 kg) in 2018, thereby implying that SIL illicit use was greater than prescription use in China. Some regional differences were observed in SIL use, which was significantly higher in North China than South China (p < 0.05), thereby reflecting that the prevalence of SIL was affected by differences in lifestyle and socioeconomic factors. We found significant positive correlations between SIL use and consumption of allopurinol, hydrochlorothiazide, nicotine, and alcohol, thereby suggesting that the prevalence of SIL was associated with the prevalence of gout, hypertension, smoking, and drinking. Moreover, age structures, internet use, and marriage rates were positively correlated with SIL use, whereas the unemployment rate was negatively correlated with SIL use. Our study demonstrates that WBE is valuable for medical research to investigate licit and illicit drug use and to assess the underlying associations of different chemical uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Ting Shao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian 116026, China
| | - Pei-Yao Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian 116026, China
| | - Si-Yu Liu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian 116026, China
| | - Jian-Guo Lin
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian 116026, China
| | - Dong-Qin Tan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian 116026, China
| | - De-Gao Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian 116026, China.
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15
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Han S, Wang Z, Huang H, Wang T, Zhou Z, Bai Y, Du P, Li X. Estimating antibiotics use in major cities in China through wastewater-based epidemiology. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 826:154116. [PMID: 35219670 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotics have been widely used for disease treatment and may pose adverse effects on human health due to increasing presence of antibiotic-resistant genes in environment. Therefore, it is important to understand antibiotic use in a specific region or country. China is a major producer of antibiotic and has a large number of consumers. In this work, wastewater samples were collected from 76 wastewater treatment plants in 31 major cities covering all of the geographic regions of China. Concentrations of eight metabolites of sulfonamide, quinolone and macrolide antibiotics were determined. The consumption levels of corresponding antibiotics were estimated based on wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach. Desmethyl ofloxacin, desethylene norfloxacin, desmethyl azithromycin and N4-acetyl sulfamethoxazole were detected in all or the overwhelming majority of wastewater samples. The estimated ∑8Antibiotics consumption levels ranged from 275.1 ± 139.4 mg/1000 inh/d (Nanchang) to 3860.9 ± 1332.3 mg/1000 inh/d (Harbin) with a mean level of 1170.0 ± 452.1 mg/1000 inh/d. Quinolones accounted for the highest proportion (74.3%, national average contribution) in the total consumption level, with norfloxacin being the dominant one (38.4%), followed by ofloxacin (29.1%) and ciprofloxacin (6.8%). The ∑8Antibiotics consumption level in northern China (1517.0 ± 1022.8 mg/1000 inh/d) was statistically higher than the level in southern China (1060.7 ± 989.1 mg/1000 inh/d) (t-test, p < 0.05). In contrast, no significant difference was found between eastern (1256.2 ± 1105.1 mg/1000 inh/d) and western China (988.3 ± 474.5 mg/1000 inh/d) (t-test, p > 0.05). The overview of antibiotics consumption derived from this work can serve as a baseline to assess the implementation of related plans/policies in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Han
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, PR China
| | - Zhenglu Wang
- College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China
| | - Hongmei Huang
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, PR China
| | - Ting Wang
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, PR China
| | - Zilei Zhou
- Hubei Provincial Academy of Eco-environmental Sciences, Wuhan 430070, PR China
| | - Ya Bai
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, PR China
| | - Peng Du
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Urban Hydrological Cycle and Sponge City Technology, College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, PR China
| | - Xiqing Li
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, PR China.
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16
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Monitoring of a Broad Set of Pharmaceuticals in Wastewaters by High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry and Evaluation of Heterogenous Catalytic Ozonation for Their Removal in a Pre-Industrial Level Unit. ANALYTICA 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/analytica3020014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The removal of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) occurring in wastewater effluents, such as pharmaceutically active substances (PhACs) and personal care products, pose a big research challenge since they can be a major source of pollution for water bodies and a danger to public health. The objective of this work was to perform a comprehensive monitoring of a broad set of PhACs (>130) in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) close to Thessaloniki (Greece), as well as to evaluate the potential of heterogeneous catalytic ozonation for the removal of CECs from wastewater through a continuous flow system. The high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis revealed the highest average concentrations for irbesartan (1817 ng/L). Antihypertensives along with antibiotics, psychiatrics, and β-blockers were found to aggravate the effluents. Removal efficiency after conventional treatment was >30%. The results from catalytic ozonation unit operation indicate that the introduction of a proper solid material that acts as catalyst can enhance the removal of CECs. A preliminary risk assessment using the risk quotient (RQ) revealed that irbesartan and telmisartan entail high acute risk. The overall results underline the urgent need to incessantly monitor PhACs and expand the toxicological studies to establish the sublethal and chronic effects on aquatic organisms.
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