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Katsuda H, Sundara M. English-learning infants developing sensitivity to vowel phonotactic cues to word segmentation. Dev Sci 2024:e13564. [PMID: 39230987 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 07/20/2024] [Accepted: 08/13/2024] [Indexed: 09/06/2024]
Abstract
Previous research has shown that when domain-general transitional probability (TP) cues to word segmentation are in conflict with language-specific stress cues, English-learning 5- and 7-month-olds rely on TP, whereas 9-month-olds rely on stress. In two artificial languages, we evaluated English-learning infants' sensitivity to TP cues to word segmentation vis-a-vis language-specific vowel phonotactic (VP) cues-English words do not end in lax vowels. These cues were either consistent or conflicting. When these cues were in conflict, 10-month-olds relied on the VP cues, whereas 5-month-olds relied on TP. These findings align with statistical bootstrapping accounts, where infants initially use domain-general distributional information for word segmentation, and subsequently discover language-specific patterns based on segmented words. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Research indicates that when transitional probability (TP) conflicts with stress cues for word segmentation, English-learning 9-month-olds rely on stress, whereas younger infants rely on TP. In two artificial languages, we evaluated English-learning infants' sensitivity to TP versus vowel phonotactic (VP) cues for word segmentation. When these cues conflicted, 10-month-olds relied on VPs, whereas 5-month-olds relied on TP. These findings align with statistical bootstrapping accounts, where infants first utilize domain-general distributional information for word segmentation, and then identify language-specific patterns from segmented words.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Megha Sundara
- Department of Linguistics, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
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2
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Nallet C, Berent I, Werker JF, Gervain J. The neonate brain's sensitivity to repetition-based structure: Specific to speech? Dev Sci 2023; 26:e13408. [PMID: 37138509 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Newborns are able to extract and learn repetition-based regularities from the speech input, that is, they show greater brain activation in the bilateral temporal and left inferior frontal regions to trisyllabic pseudowords of the form AAB (e.g., "babamu") than to random ABC sequences (e.g., "bamuge"). Whether this ability is specific to speech or also applies to other auditory stimuli remains unexplored. To investigate this, we tested whether newborns are sensitive to regularities in musical tones. Neonates listened to AAB and ABC tones sequences, while their brain activity was recorded using functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS). The paradigm, the frequency of occurrence and the distribution of the tones were identical to those of the syllables used in previous studies with speech. We observed a greater inverted (negative) hemodynamic response to AAB than to ABC sequences in the bilateral temporal and fronto-parietal areas. This inverted response was caused by a decrease in response amplitude, attributed to habituation, over the course of the experiment in the left fronto-temporal region for the ABC condition and in the right fronto-temporal region for both conditions. These findings show that newborns' ability to discriminate AAB from ABC sequences is not specific to speech. However, the neural response to musical tones and spoken language is markedly different. Tones gave rise to habituation, whereas speech was shown to trigger increasing responses over the time course of the study. Relatedly, the repetition regularity gave rise to an inverted hemodynamic response when carried by tones, while it was canonical for speech. Thus, newborns' ability to detect repetition is not speech-specific, but it engages distinct brain mechanisms for speech and music. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The ability of newborns' to detect repetition-based regularities is not specific to speech, but also extends to other auditory modalities. The brain mechanisms underlying speech and music processing are markedly different.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Nallet
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padua, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padua, Padova, Italy
| | - Iris Berent
- Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Janet F Werker
- Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Judit Gervain
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padua, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padua, Padova, Italy
- Integrative Neuroscience and Cognition Center, CNRS & University of Paris, Paris, France
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3
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Kujala T, Partanen E, Virtala P, Winkler I. Prerequisites of language acquisition in the newborn brain. Trends Neurosci 2023; 46:726-737. [PMID: 37344237 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2023.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Learning to decode and produce speech is one of the most demanding tasks faced by infants. Nevertheless, infants typically utter their first words within a year, and phrases soon follow. Here we review cognitive abilities of newborn infants that promote language acquisition, focusing primarily on studies tapping neural activity. The results of these studies indicate that infants possess core adult auditory abilities already at birth, including statistical learning and rule extraction from variable speech input. Thus, the neonatal brain is ready to categorize sounds, detect word boundaries, learn words, and separate speech streams: in short, to acquire language quickly and efficiently from everyday linguistic input.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teija Kujala
- Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Centre of Excellence in Music, Mind, Body and Brain, Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Eino Partanen
- Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Centre of Excellence in Music, Mind, Body and Brain, Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Paula Virtala
- Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Centre of Excellence in Music, Mind, Body and Brain, Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - István Winkler
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
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4
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Gemignani J, de la Cruz-Pavía I, Martinez A, Nallet C, Pasquini A, Lucarini G, Cavicchiolo F, Gervain J. Reproducibility of infant fNIRS studies: a meta-analytic approach. NEUROPHOTONICS 2023; 10:023518. [PMID: 36908681 PMCID: PMC9997722 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.10.2.023518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Concerns about the reproducibility of experimental findings have recently emerged in many disciplines, from psychology to medicine and neuroscience. As NIRS is a relatively recent brain imaging technique, the question of reproducibility has not yet been systematically addressed. AIM The current study seeks to test the replicability of effects observed in NIRS experiments assessing young infants' rule-learning ability. APPROACH We conducted meta-analyses and mixed-effects modeling-based inferential statistics to determine whether effect sizes were replicable and comparable in a sample of 23 NIRS studies investigating infants' abilities to process repetition- and diversity-based regularities in linguistic and nonlinguistic auditory and visual sequences. Additionally, we tested whether effect sizes were modulated by different factors such as the age of participants or the laboratory. We obtained NIRS data from 12 published and 11 unpublished studies. The 23 studies involved a total of 487 infants, aged between 0 and 9 months, tested in four different countries (Canada, France, Italy, and USA). RESULTS Our most important finding is that study and laboratory were never significant moderators of variation in effect sizes, indicating that results replicated reliably across the different studies and labs included in the sample. We observed small-to-moderate effect sizes, similar to effect sizes found with other neuroimaging and behavioral techniques in the developmental literature. In line with existing findings, effect sizes were modulated by the participants' age and differed across the different regularities tested, with repetition-based regularities giving rise to the strongest effects; in particular, the overall magnitude of this effect in the left temporal region was 0.27 when analyzing the entire dataset. CONCLUSIONS Meta-analysis is a useful tool for assessing replicability and cross-study variability. Here, we have shown that infant NIRS studies in the language domain replicate robustly across various NIRS machines, testing sites, and developmental populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Gemignani
- University of Padua, Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Padua, Italy
- University of Padua, Padova Neuroscience Center, Padua, Italy
| | - Irene de la Cruz-Pavía
- University of the Basque Country, Department of Linguistics and Basque Studies, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Anna Martinez
- University of Padua, Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Padua, Italy
- University of Padua, Padova Neuroscience Center, Padua, Italy
| | - Caroline Nallet
- University of Padua, Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Padua, Italy
- University of Padua, Padova Neuroscience Center, Padua, Italy
| | - Alessia Pasquini
- University of Padua, Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Padua, Italy
| | - Gaia Lucarini
- University of Padua, Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Padua, Italy
- University of Padua, Padova Neuroscience Center, Padua, Italy
| | - Francesca Cavicchiolo
- University of Padua, Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Padua, Italy
| | - Judit Gervain
- University of Padua, Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Padua, Italy
- University of Padua, Padova Neuroscience Center, Padua, Italy
- Université Paris Cité & CNRS, Integrative Neuroscience and Cognition Center, Paris, France
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Geambașu A, Spit S, van Renswoude D, Blom E, Fikkert PJPM, Hunnius S, Junge CCMM, Verhagen J, Visser I, Wijnen F, Levelt CC. Robustness of the rule-learning effect in 7-month-old infants: A close, multicenter replication of Marcus et al. (1999). Dev Sci 2023; 26:e13244. [PMID: 35172393 PMCID: PMC10078110 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
We conducted a close replication of the seminal work by Marcus and colleagues from 1999, which showed that after a brief auditory exposure phase, 7-month-old infants were able to learn and generalize a rule to novel syllables not previously present in the exposure phase. This work became the foundation for the theoretical framework by which we assume that infants are able to learn abstract representations and generalize linguistic rules. While some extensions on the original work have shown evidence of rule learning, the outcomes are mixed, and an exact replication of Marcus et al.'s study has thus far not been reported. A recent meta-analysis by Rabagliati and colleagues brings to light that the rule-learning effect depends on stimulus type (e.g., meaningfulness, speech vs. nonspeech) and is not as robust as often assumed. In light of the theoretical importance of the issue at stake, it is appropriate and necessary to assess the replicability and robustness of Marcus et al.'s findings. Here we have undertaken a replication across four labs with a large sample of 7-month-old infants (N = 96), using the same exposure patterns (ABA and ABB), methodology (Headturn Preference Paradigm), and original stimuli. As in the original study, we tested the hypothesis that infants are able to learn abstract "algebraic" rules and apply them to novel input. Our results did not replicate the original findings: infants showed no difference in looking time between test patterns consistent or inconsistent with the familiarization pattern they were exposed to.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Elma Blom
- Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,AcqVA Aurora, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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6
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Bonetti L, Brattico E, Bruzzone SEP, Donati G, Deco G, Pantazis D, Vuust P, Kringelbach ML. Brain recognition of previously learned versus novel temporal sequences: a differential simultaneous processing. Cereb Cortex 2022; 33:5524-5537. [PMID: 36346308 PMCID: PMC10152090 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhac439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Memory for sequences is a central topic in neuroscience, and decades of studies have investigated the neural mechanisms underlying the coding of a wide array of sequences extended over time. Yet, little is known on the brain mechanisms underlying the recognition of previously memorized versus novel temporal sequences. Moreover, the differential brain processing of single items in an auditory temporal sequence compared to the whole superordinate sequence is not fully understood. In this magnetoencephalography (MEG) study, the items of the temporal sequence were independently linked to local and rapid (2–8 Hz) brain processing, while the whole sequence was associated with concurrent global and slower (0.1–1 Hz) processing involving a widespread network of sequentially active brain regions. Notably, the recognition of previously memorized temporal sequences was associated to stronger activity in the slow brain processing, while the novel sequences required a greater involvement of the faster brain processing. Overall, the results expand on well-known information flow from lower- to higher order brain regions. In fact, they reveal the differential involvement of slow and faster whole brain processing to recognize previously learned versus novel temporal information.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Bonetti
- Center for Music in the Brain (MIB), Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University & The Royal Academy of Music Aarhus/Aalborg , Universitetsbyen 3, 8000, Aarhus C , Denmark
- Centre for Eudaimonia and Human Flourishing, Linacre College, University of Oxford , Stoke place 7, OX39BX, Oxford , UK
- University of Oxford Department of Psychiatry, , Oxford, UK
- University of Bologna Department of Psychology, , Italy
| | - E Brattico
- Center for Music in the Brain (MIB), Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University & The Royal Academy of Music Aarhus/Aalborg , Universitetsbyen 3, 8000, Aarhus C , Denmark
- University of Bari Aldo Moro Department of Education, Psychology, Communication, , Italy
| | - S E P Bruzzone
- Center for Music in the Brain (MIB) , Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University & The Royal Academy of Music Aarhus/Aalborg, Universitetsbyen 3, 8000, Aarhus C , Denmark
- Copenhagen University Hospital Rigshospitalet Neurobiology Research Unit (NRU), , Inge Lehmanns Vej 6, 2100, Copenhagen , Denmark
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen , Blegdamsvej 3B, 2200, Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - G Donati
- University of Bologna Department of Psychology, , Italy
| | - G Deco
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Universitat Pompeu Fabra Computational and Theoretical Neuroscience Group, , Edifici Merce Rodereda, C/ de Ramon Trias Fargas, 25, 08018 Barcelona , Spain
| | - D Pantazis
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) , 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139 , USA
| | - P Vuust
- Center for Music in the Brain (MIB), Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University & The Royal Academy of Music Aarhus/Aalborg , Universitetsbyen 3, 8000, Aarhus C , Denmark
| | - M L Kringelbach
- Center for Music in the Brain (MIB), Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University & The Royal Academy of Music Aarhus/Aalborg , Universitetsbyen 3, 8000, Aarhus C , Denmark
- Centre for Eudaimonia and Human Flourishing, Linacre College, University of Oxford , Stoke place 7, OX39BX, Oxford , UK
- University of Oxford Department of Psychiatry, , Oxford, UK
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7
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Weyers I, Mueller J. A Special Role of Syllables, But Not Vowels or Consonants, for Nonadjacent Dependency Learning. J Cogn Neurosci 2022; 34:1467-1487. [PMID: 35604359 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Successful language processing entails tracking (morpho)syntactic relationships between distant units of speech, so-called nonadjacent dependencies (NADs). Many cues to such dependency relations have been identified, yet the linguistic elements encoding them have received little attention. In the present investigation, we tested whether and how these elements, here syllables, consonants, and vowels, affect behavioral learning success as well as learning-related changes in neural activity in relation to item-specific NAD learning. In a set of two EEG studies with adults, we compared learning under conditions where either all segment types (Experiment 1) or only one segment type (Experiment 2) was informative. The collected behavioral and ERP data indicate that, when all three segment types are available, participants mainly rely on the syllable for NAD learning. With only one segment type available for learning, adults also perform most successfully with syllable-based dependencies. Although we find no evidence for successful learning across vowels in Experiment 2, dependencies between consonants seem to be identified at least passively at the phonetic-feature level. Together, these results suggest that successful item-specific NAD learning may depend on the availability of syllabic information. Furthermore, they highlight consonants' distinctive power to support lexical processes. Although syllables show a clear facilitatory function for NAD learning, the underlying mechanisms of this advantage require further research.
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8
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de la Cruz-Pavía I, Westphal-Fitch G, Fitch WT, Gervain J. Seven-month-old infants detect symmetrical structures in multi-featured abstract visual patterns. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0266938. [PMID: 35544459 PMCID: PMC9094521 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0266938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study investigated 7-month-old infants' ability to perceive structural symmetry in mosaic-like abstract visual patterns. We examined infants' (n = 98) spontaneous looking behaviour to mosaic-like sequences with symmetrical and asymmetrical structures. Sequences were composed of square tiles from two categories that differed in their colour scheme and internal shape. We manipulated sequence length (3 or 5 tiles) and abstractness of the symmetry (token vs. category level). The 7-month-olds discriminated structurally symmetrical from asymmetrical mosaics in the first half of the test phase (first 8 trials). Sequence length, level of symmetry, or number of unique tiles per sequence did not significantly modulate infants' looking behaviour. These results suggest that very young infants detect differences in structural symmetry in multi-featured visual patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene de la Cruz-Pavía
- Department of Linguistics and Basque Studies, Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
- Basque Foundation for Science Ikerbasque, Bilbao, Spain
- Integrative Neuroscience and Cognition Center, CNRS, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Judit Gervain
- Integrative Neuroscience and Cognition Center, CNRS, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
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9
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Saksida A, Ghiselli S, Picinali L, Pintonello S, Battelino S, Orzan E. Attention to Speech and Music in Young Children with Bilateral Cochlear Implants: A Pupillometry Study. J Clin Med 2022; 11:1745. [PMID: 35330071 PMCID: PMC8956090 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11061745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 03/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Early bilateral cochlear implants (CIs) may enhance attention to speech, and reduce cognitive load in noisy environments. However, it is sometimes difficult to measure speech perception and listening effort, especially in very young children. Behavioral measures cannot always be obtained in young/uncooperative children, whereas objective measures are either difficult to assess or do not reliably correlate with behavioral measures. Recent studies have thus explored pupillometry as a possible objective measure. Here, pupillometry is introduced to assess attention to speech and music in noise in very young children with bilateral CIs (N = 14, age: 17-47 months), and in the age-matched group of normally-hearing (NH) children (N = 14, age: 22-48 months). The results show that the response to speech was affected by the presence of background noise only in children with CIs, but not NH children. Conversely, the presence of background noise altered pupil response to music only in in NH children. We conclude that whereas speech and music may receive comparable attention in comparable listening conditions, in young children with CIs, controlling for background noise affects attention to speech and speech processing more than in NH children. Potential implementations of the results for rehabilitation procedures are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Saksida
- Institute for Maternal and Child Health—IRCCS “Burlo Garofolo”—Trieste, 34137 Trieste, Italy; (S.P.); (E.O.)
| | - Sara Ghiselli
- Ospedale Guglielmo da Saliceto, 29121 Piacenza, Italy;
| | - Lorenzo Picinali
- Dyson School of Design Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2DB, UK;
| | - Sara Pintonello
- Institute for Maternal and Child Health—IRCCS “Burlo Garofolo”—Trieste, 34137 Trieste, Italy; (S.P.); (E.O.)
| | - Saba Battelino
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Eva Orzan
- Institute for Maternal and Child Health—IRCCS “Burlo Garofolo”—Trieste, 34137 Trieste, Italy; (S.P.); (E.O.)
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10
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Zhang H, Zhen Y, Yu S, Long T, Zhang B, Jiang X, Li J, Fang W, Sigman M, Dehaene S, Wang L. Working Memory for Spatial Sequences: Developmental and Evolutionary Factors in Encoding Ordinal and Relational Structures. J Neurosci 2022; 42:850-864. [PMID: 34862186 PMCID: PMC8808738 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0603-21.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Sequence learning is a ubiquitous facet of human and animal cognition. Here, using a common sequence reproduction task, we investigated whether and how the ordinal and relational structures linking consecutive elements are acquired by human adults, children, and macaque monkeys. While children and monkeys exhibited significantly lower precision than adults for spatial location and temporal order information, only monkeys appeared to exceedingly focus on the first item. Most importantly, only humans, regardless of age, spontaneously extracted the spatial relations between consecutive items and used a chunking strategy to compress sequences in working memory. Monkeys did not detect such relational structures, even after extensive training. Monkey behavior was captured by a conjunctive coding model, whereas a chunk-based conjunctive model explained more variance in humans. These age- and species-related differences are indicative of developmental and evolutionary mechanisms of sequence encoding and may provide novel insights into the uniquely human cognitive capacities.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Sequence learning, the ability to encode the order of discrete elements and their relationships presented within a sequence, is a ubiquitous facet of cognition among humans and animals. By exploring sequence-processing abilities at different human developmental stages and in nonhuman primates, we found that only humans, regardless of age, spontaneously extracted the spatial relations between consecutive items and used an internal language to compress sequences in working memory. The findings provided insights into understanding the origins of sequence capabilities in humans and how they evolve through development to identify the unique aspects of human cognitive capacity, which includes the comprehension, learning, and production of sequences, and perhaps, above all, language processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Zhang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanfen Zhen
- Institute of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, People's Republic of China
| | - Shijing Yu
- Institute of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, People's Republic of China
| | - Tenghai Long
- Institute of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Bingqian Zhang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 200031, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinjian Jiang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, People's Republic of China
| | - Junru Li
- Institute of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, People's Republic of China
| | - Wen Fang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, People's Republic of China
| | - Mariano Sigman
- Laboratory Neuroscience, Universidad Torcuato di Tella, C1428 Buenos Aires, Argentina
- School of Language and Education, Universidad Nebrija, 28015 Madrid, Spain
| | - Stanislas Dehaene
- Collège de France, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
- Cognitive Neuroimaging Unit, CEA DSV/I2BM, INSERM, NeuroSpin Center, Université Paris Sud/Université Paris-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Liping Wang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, People's Republic of China
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Akhutina T, Oshchepkova E. Dissociation of Syntax and Vocabulary Development in Junior Schoolchildren with Different Neuropsychological Profile. CULTURAL-HISTORICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.17759/chp.2022180312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
This study aims to examine the features of text construction in terms of vocabulary and grammar in children with a weakness in the auditory verbal information processing (AV-group) and with a weakness in executive functions (programming and control of voluntary activity, EF-group). The participants were 71 second grade children from Moscow schools (mean age 8.8 years old, SD 0.29 years; 36 girls, 35 boys). Four groups were selected: children with good and weak development of AV and children with good and weak development of EF. The main hypothesis of the study, following A.R. Luria, was that in children with the weakness of AV, first of all, the paradigmatic mechanisms of word choice will suffer, and in children with the weakness of EF, the syntagmatic mechanisms for constructing a phrase and text. The use of non-parametric statistical analysis (Mann-Whitney test) showed the validity of the hypothesis and revealed the main errors in the narrative construction by children with both the weakness of AV and EF. The discussion of the results included consideration of the arguments in favor of a single or dual mechanism for the acquisition of vocabulary and grammar in children.
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12
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Sundara M, Zhou ZL, Breiss C, Katsuda H, Steffman J. Infants' developing sensitivity to native language phonotactics: A meta-analysis. Cognition 2021; 221:104993. [PMID: 34953268 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
We used Bayesian modeling to aggregate experiments investigating infants' sensitivity to native language phonotactics. Our findings were based on data from 83 experiments on about 2000 infants learning 8 languages, tested using 4 different methods. Our results showed that, unlike with artificial languages, infants do exhibit sensitivity to native language phonotactic patterns in a lab setting. However, the exact developmental trajectory depends on the phonotactic pattern being tested. Before 8 months, infants tuned into non-local dependencies between vowels: specifically, vowel harmony. Between 8- and 10-months, infants demonstrated a consistent sensitivity to both local dependencies and non-local consonant dependencies. Sensitivity to non-local vowel dependencies that are not based on harmony emerged only after 10-months. These findings provide a benchmark for future experimental and computational research on the acquisition of phonotactics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Z L Zhou
- UCLA, Department of Linguistics, USA
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13
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Impact of Early Rhythmic Training on Language Acquisition and Electrophysiological Functioning Underlying Auditory Processing: Feasibility and Preliminary Findings in Typically Developing Infants. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11111546. [PMID: 34827544 PMCID: PMC8615969 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11111546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous evidence has shown that early auditory processing impacts later linguistic development, and targeted training implemented at early ages can enhance auditory processing skills, with better expected language development outcomes. This study focuses on typically developing infants and aims to test the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of music training based on active synchronization with complex musical rhythms on the linguistic outcomes and electrophysiological functioning underlying auditory processing. Fifteen infants participated in the training (RTr+) and were compared with two groups of infants not attending any structured activities during the same time frame (RTr−, N = 14). At pre- and post-training, expressive and receptive language skills were assessed using standardized tests, and auditory processing skills were characterized through an electrophysiological non-speech multi-feature paradigm. Results reveal that RTr+ infants showed significantly broader improvement in both expressive and receptive pre-language skills. Moreover, at post-training, they presented an electrophysiological pattern characterized by shorter latency of two peaks (N2* and P2), reflecting a neural change detection process: these shifts in latency go beyond those seen due to maturation alone. These results provide preliminary evidence on the efficacy of our training in improving early linguistic competences, and in modifying the neural underpinnings of auditory processing in infants.
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14
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Pepperberg IM. A Review of the Model/Rival (M/R) Technique for Training Interspecies Communication and Its Use in Behavioral Research. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:2479. [PMID: 34573445 PMCID: PMC8469950 DOI: 10.3390/ani11092479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, I will review the Model/Rival (M/R) technique that has been used to establish interspecies communication with Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). I will describe the original format developed by Todt, the relationship to other forms of observational learning outlined by other researchers, and the adaptations that I devised. I will describe how my undergraduate trainers and I isolated the various components that constitute the technique and explain how each is necessary, but how only the combination of all components is sufficient for successful implementation-and how improper implementation can lead to failure. I will briefly summarize the results of proper implementation-including the importance of interspecies communication itself as a technique for studying animal cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene M. Pepperberg
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA;
- The Alex Foundation, 30 Curry Circle, Swampscott, MA 01907, USA
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15
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Leung A, Tunkel A, Yurovsky D. Parents Fine-Tune Their Speech to Children's Vocabulary Knowledge. Psychol Sci 2021; 32:975-984. [PMID: 34212788 DOI: 10.1177/0956797621993104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Young children learn language at an incredible rate. Although children come prepared with powerful statistical-learning mechanisms, the statistics they encounter are also prepared for them: Children learn from caregivers motivated to communicate with them. How precisely do parents tune their speech to their children's individual language knowledge? To answer this question, we asked parent-child pairs (N = 41) to play a reference game in which the parents' goal was to guide their child to select a target animal from a set of three. Parents fine-tuned their referring expressions to their children's knowledge at the lexical level, producing more informative references for animals they thought their children did not know. Further, parents learned about their children's knowledge over the course of the game and tuned their referring expressions accordingly. Child-directed speech may thus support children's learning not because it is uniformly simplified but because it is tuned to individual children's language development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Leung
- Department of Psychology, The University of Chicago
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16
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Prosody facilitates learning the word order in a new language. Cognition 2021; 213:104686. [PMID: 33863550 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
One of the prominent ideas developed by Jacques Mehler and his colleagues was that perceptual tuning, present from birth on, enables infants, and language learners in general, to extract regularities from speech input. Here we discuss language learners'' ability to extract basic word order (VO or OV) structure from prosodic regularities in a language. The two are closely related: in phonological phrases of VO languages, the most prominent word is the rightmost one, and in OV languages, it is the leftmost one. In speech, this prominence is realized as extended duration, or as elevated pitch, sometimes combined with changes in intensity. When learning the first (L1) or the second language (L2), exposure to relevant rhythmic structure elicits implicit learning about syntactic structure, including the basic word order. However, it remains unclear whether triggering the learning process requires a certain level of familiarity with the relevant rhythm. It is moreover unknown whether prosodic information can help L2 learners to extract and learn the vocabulary of a new language. We tested Spanish- and Italian-speaking adults' ability to learn words from an artificial language with either non-native OV or native VO word order. The results show that learners used prosodic information to identify the most prominent words in short utterances when the artificial language was similar to the native language, with duration-based prominence in prosody and a VO word order. In contrast, when the artificial language had a non-native prominence marked by pitch alternations and an OV word order, prominent words were learned only after a three-day exposure to the relevant rhythmic structure. Thus, for adult L2 learners, only repeated exposure to the relevant prosody elicited learning new words from an unknown language with non-native prosodic marking, indicating that, with familiarity, prosodic cues can facilitate learning in L2.
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17
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Lu HS, Mintz TH. Learning non-adjacent rules and non-adjacent dependencies from human actions in 9-month-old infants. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0252959. [PMID: 34106999 PMCID: PMC8189460 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0252959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Seven month old infants can learn simple repetition patterns, such as we-fo-we, and generalize the rules to sequences of new syllables, such as ga-ti-ga. However, repetition rule learning in visual sequences seems more challenging, leading some researchers to claim that this type of rule learning applies preferentially to communicative stimuli. Here we demonstrate that 9-month-old infants can learn repetition rules in sequences of non-communicative dynamic human actions. We also show that when primed with these non-adjacent repetition patterns, infants can learn non-adjacent dependencies that involve memorizing the dependencies between specific human actions-patterns that prior research has shown to be difficult for infants in the visual domain and in speech. We discuss several possible mechanisms that account for the apparent advantage stimuli involving human action sequences has over other kinds of stimuli in supporting non-adjacent dependency learning. We also discuss possible implications for theories of language acquisition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Shiyang Lu
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail: (HSL); (THM)
| | - Toben H. Mintz
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
- Department of Linguistics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail: (HSL); (THM)
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18
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Fló A. Evidence of ordinal position encoding of sequences extracted from continuous speech. Cognition 2021; 213:104646. [PMID: 33707004 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Infants' capacity to extract statistical regularities from sequential information is impressive and well documented. However, statistical learning's underlying mechanism remains mostly unknown, and its role in language acquisition is still under debate. To shed light on these issues, here we address the question of which information human subjects extract and encode after familiarisation with a continuous sequence of stimuli and its dependence on the type of segmentation cues and on the stimuli modality. Specifically, we investigate whether adults and 5-month-old infants learn the syllables' co-occurrence in the stream or generate a representation of the Words that include syllables' ordinal position. We test if subtle pauses signalling word boundaries change the encoding and, in adults, if it varies across modalities. In six behavioural experiments, we show that: (i) Adults and infants learn the streams' statistical structure. (ii) Ordinal encoding emerges in the auditory modality, and pauses enhanced it. However, (iii) ordinal encoding seems to depend on the learning stage and not on pauses marking Words' edges. Interestingly, (iv) for visual presentation of orthographic syllables, we do not find evidence of ordinal encoding in adults. Our results support the emergence, in the auditory modality, of a Word representation where its constituents are associated with an ordinal position at play already early in life, bringing new insights into speech processing and language acquisition. Additionally, we successfully use for the first time pupillometry in an infant segmentation task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Fló
- Language, Cognition, and Development Laboratory, Scuola Internazionale di Studi Avanzati, Trieste, Italy; Cognitive Neuroimaging Unit, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Université Paris-Saclay, NeuroSpin Center, 91191 Gif/Yvette, France.
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19
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de la Cruz-Pavía I, Gervain J. Infants’ perception of repetition-based regularities in speech: a look from the perspective of the same/different distinction. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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20
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How statistical learning interacts with the socioeconomic environment to shape children's language development. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0244954. [PMID: 33481800 PMCID: PMC7822340 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Language is acquired in part through statistical learning abilities that encode environmental regularities. Language development is also heavily influenced by social environmental factors such as socioeconomic status. However, it is unknown to what extent statistical learning interacts with SES to affect language outcomes. We measured event-related potentials in 26 children aged 8–12 while they performed a visual statistical learning task. Regression analyses indicated that children’s learning performance moderated the relationship between socioeconomic status and both syntactic and vocabulary language comprehension scores. For children demonstrating high learning, socioeconomic status had a weaker effect on language compared to children showing low learning. These results suggest that high statistical learning ability can provide a buffer against the disadvantages associated with being raised in a lower socioeconomic status household.
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21
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Ota M, San José A, Smith K. The emergence of word-internal repetition through iterated learning: Explaining the mismatch between learning biases and language design. Cognition 2021; 210:104585. [PMID: 33465675 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The idea that natural language is shaped by biases in learning plays a key role in our understanding of how human language is structured, but its corollary that there should be a correspondence between typological generalisations and ease of acquisition is not always supported. For example, natural languages tend to avoid close repetitions of consonants within a word, but developmental evidence suggests that, if anything, words containing sound repetitions are more, not less, likely to be acquired than those without. In this study, we use word-internal repetition as a test case to provide a cultural evolutionary explanation of when and how learning biases impact on language design. Two artificial language experiments showed that adult speakers possess a bias for both consonant and vowel repetitions when learning novel words, but the effects of this bias were observable in language transmission only when there was a relatively high learning pressure on the lexicon. Based on these results, we argue that whether the design of a language reflects biases in learning depends on the relative strength of pressures from learnability and communication efficiency exerted on the linguistic system during cultural transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aitor San José
- Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands; International Max Planck Research School for Language Sciences, The Netherlands
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22
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Orpella J, Ripollés P, Ruzzoli M, Amengual JL, Callejas A, Martinez-Alvarez A, Soto-Faraco S, de Diego-Balaguer R. Integrating when and what information in the left parietal lobe allows language rule generalization. PLoS Biol 2020; 18:e3000895. [PMID: 33137084 PMCID: PMC7660506 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A crucial aspect when learning a language is discovering the rules that govern how words are combined in order to convey meanings. Because rules are characterized by sequential co-occurrences between elements (e.g., “These cupcakes are unbelievable”), tracking the statistical relationships between these elements is fundamental. However, purely bottom-up statistical learning alone cannot fully account for the ability to create abstract rule representations that can be generalized, a paramount requirement of linguistic rules. Here, we provide evidence that, after the statistical relations between words have been extracted, the engagement of goal-directed attention is key to enable rule generalization. Incidental learning performance during a rule-learning task on an artificial language revealed a progressive shift from statistical learning to goal-directed attention. In addition, and consistent with the recruitment of attention, functional MRI (fMRI) analyses of late learning stages showed left parietal activity within a broad bilateral dorsal frontoparietal network. Critically, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on participants’ peak of activation within the left parietal cortex impaired their ability to generalize learned rules to a structurally analogous new language. No stimulation or rTMS on a nonrelevant brain region did not have the same interfering effect on generalization. Performance on an additional attentional task showed that this rTMS on the parietal site hindered participants’ ability to integrate “what” (stimulus identity) and “when” (stimulus timing) information about an expected target. The present findings suggest that learning rules from speech is a two-stage process: following statistical learning, goal-directed attention—involving left parietal regions—integrates “what” and “when” stimulus information to facilitate rapid rule generalization. This study uses repetitive transcranial stimulation to show that learning language rules from speech is a two-stage process; following statistical learning, goal-directed attention (involving left parietal regions) integrates "what" and "when" stimulus information to facilitate rapid rule generalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Orpella
- Cognition and Brain Plasticity Unit, IDIBELL, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Dept of Cognition Development and Educational Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Pablo Ripollés
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
- Music and Auditory Research Laboratory (MARL), New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
- Center for Language, Music and Emotion (CLaME), New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Manuela Ruzzoli
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Departament de Tecnologies de la Informació i les Comunicacions, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Julià L. Amengual
- Centre de Neuroscience Cognitive Marc Jeannerod, CNRS UMR 5229, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, Bron, France
| | - Alicia Callejas
- Cognition and Brain Plasticity Unit, IDIBELL, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Departamento de Psicología Experimental, Facultad de Psicología y Centro de Investigación Mente, Cerebro y Comportamiento, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Anna Martinez-Alvarez
- Cognition and Brain Plasticity Unit, IDIBELL, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Dept of Cognition Development and Educational Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padua, Italy
| | - Salvador Soto-Faraco
- Music and Auditory Research Laboratory (MARL), New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
- ICREA, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ruth de Diego-Balaguer
- Cognition and Brain Plasticity Unit, IDIBELL, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Dept of Cognition Development and Educational Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- ICREA, Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail:
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23
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Wilson B, Spierings M, Ravignani A, Mueller JL, Mintz TH, Wijnen F, van der Kant A, Smith K, Rey A. Non-adjacent Dependency Learning in Humans and Other Animals. Top Cogn Sci 2020; 12:843-858. [PMID: 32729673 PMCID: PMC7496455 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Revised: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Learning and processing natural language requires the ability to track syntactic relationships between words and phrases in a sentence, which are often separated by intervening material. These nonadjacent dependencies can be studied using artificial grammar learning paradigms and structured sequence processing tasks. These approaches have been used to demonstrate that human adults, infants and some nonhuman animals are able to detect and learn dependencies between nonadjacent elements within a sequence. However, learning nonadjacent dependencies appears to be more cognitively demanding than detecting dependencies between adjacent elements, and only occurs in certain circumstances. In this review, we discuss different types of nonadjacent dependencies in language and in artificial grammar learning experiments, and how these differences might impact learning. We summarize different types of perceptual cues that facilitate learning, by highlighting the relationship between dependent elements bringing them closer together either physically, attentionally, or perceptually. Finally, we review artificial grammar learning experiments in human adults, infants, and nonhuman animals, and discuss how similarities and differences observed across these groups can provide insights into how language is learned across development and how these language-related abilities might have evolved.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Andrea Ravignani
- Research DepartmentSealcentre Pieterburen
- Artificial Intelligence LabVrije Universiteit Brussel
| | | | - Toben H. Mintz
- Departments of Psychology and LinguisticsUniversity of Southern California
| | - Frank Wijnen
- Utrecht Institute of Linguistics OTSUtrecht University
| | | | - Kenny Smith
- Centre for Language EvolutionUniversity of Edinburgh
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24
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Conway CM. How does the brain learn environmental structure? Ten core principles for understanding the neurocognitive mechanisms of statistical learning. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 112:279-299. [PMID: 32018038 PMCID: PMC7211144 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Despite a growing body of research devoted to the study of how humans encode environmental patterns, there is still no clear consensus about the nature of the neurocognitive mechanisms underpinning statistical learning nor what factors constrain or promote its emergence across individuals, species, and learning situations. Based on a review of research examining the roles of input modality and domain, input structure and complexity, attention, neuroanatomical bases, ontogeny, and phylogeny, ten core principles are proposed. Specifically, there exist two sets of neurocognitive mechanisms underlying statistical learning. First, a "suite" of associative-based, automatic, modality-specific learning mechanisms are mediated by the general principle of cortical plasticity, which results in improved processing and perceptual facilitation of encountered stimuli. Second, an attention-dependent system, mediated by the prefrontal cortex and related attentional and working memory networks, can modulate or gate learning and is necessary in order to learn nonadjacent dependencies and to integrate global patterns across time. This theoretical framework helps clarify conflicting research findings and provides the basis for future empirical and theoretical endeavors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M Conway
- Center for Childhood Deafness, Language, and Learning, Boys Town National Research Hospital, Omaha, NE, United States.
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25
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Endress AD. A Simple, Biologically Plausible Feature Detector for Language Acquisition. J Cogn Neurosci 2020; 32:435-445. [DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Language has a complex grammatical system we still have to understand computationally and biologically. However, some evolutionarily ancient mechanisms have been repurposed for grammar so that we can use insight from other taxa into possible circuit-level mechanisms of grammar. Drawing upon recent evidence for the importance of disinhibitory circuits across taxa and brain regions, I suggest a simple circuit that explains the acquisition of core grammatical rules used in 85% of the world's languages: grammatical rules based on sameness/difference relations. This circuit acts as a sameness detector. “Different” items are suppressed through inhibition, but presenting two “identical” items leads to inhibition of inhibition. The items are thus propagated for further processing. This sameness detector thus acts as a feature detector for a grammatical rule. I suggest that having a set of feature detectors for elementary grammatical rules might make language acquisition feasible based on relatively simple computational mechanisms.
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26
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Calmus R, Wilson B, Kikuchi Y, Petkov CI. Structured sequence processing and combinatorial binding: neurobiologically and computationally informed hypotheses. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190304. [PMID: 31840585 PMCID: PMC6939361 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how the brain forms representations of structured information distributed in time is a challenging endeavour for the neuroscientific community, requiring computationally and neurobiologically informed approaches. The neural mechanisms for segmenting continuous streams of sensory input and establishing representations of dependencies remain largely unknown, as do the transformations and computations occurring between the brain regions involved in these aspects of sequence processing. We propose a blueprint for a neurobiologically informed and informing computational model of sequence processing (entitled: Vector-symbolic Sequencing of Binding INstantiating Dependencies, or VS-BIND). This model is designed to support the transformation of serially ordered elements in sensory sequences into structured representations of bound dependencies, readily operates on multiple timescales, and encodes or decodes sequences with respect to chunked items wherever dependencies occur in time. The model integrates established vector symbolic additive and conjunctive binding operators with neurobiologically plausible oscillatory dynamics, and is compatible with modern spiking neural network simulation methods. We show that the model is capable of simulating previous findings from structured sequence processing tasks that engage fronto-temporal regions, specifying mechanistic roles for regions such as prefrontal areas 44/45 and the frontal operculum during interactions with sensory representations in temporal cortex. Finally, we are able to make predictions based on the configuration of the model alone that underscore the importance of serial position information, which requires input from time-sensitive cells, known to reside in the hippocampus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. This article is part of the theme issue 'Towards mechanistic models of meaning composition'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Calmus
- Newcastle University Medical School, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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27
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Ordin M, Polyanskaya L, Soto D. Neural bases of learning and recognition of statistical regularities. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2020; 1467:60-76. [PMID: 31919870 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Statistical learning is a set of cognitive mechanisms allowing for extracting regularities from the environment and segmenting continuous sensory input into discrete units. The current study used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (N = 25) in conjunction with an artificial language learning paradigm to provide new insight into the neural mechanisms of statistical learning, considering both the online process of extracting statistical regularities and the subsequent offline recognition of learned patterns. Notably, prior fMRI studies on statistical learning have not contrasted neural activation during the learning and recognition experimental phases. Here, we found that learning is supported by the superior temporal gyrus and the anterior cingulate gyrus, while subsequent recognition relied on the left inferior frontal gyrus. Besides, prior studies only assessed the brain response during the recognition of trained words relative to novel nonwords. Hence, a further key goal of this study was to understand how the brain supports recognition of discrete constituents from the continuous input versus recognition of mere statistical structure that is used to build new constituents that are statistically congruent with the ones from the input. Behaviorally, recognition performance indicated that statistically congruent novel tokens were less likely to be endorsed as parts of the familiar environment than discrete constituents. fMRI data showed that the left intraparietal sulcus and angular gyrus support the recognition of old discrete constituents relative to novel statistically congruent items, likely reflecting an additional contribution from memory representations for trained items.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail Ordin
- BCBL - Basque Centre on Cognition, Brain and Language, San Sebastián, Spain.,Ikerbasque - Basque Foundation for Science, San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Leona Polyanskaya
- BCBL - Basque Centre on Cognition, Brain and Language, San Sebastián, Spain
| | - David Soto
- BCBL - Basque Centre on Cognition, Brain and Language, San Sebastián, Spain.,Ikerbasque - Basque Foundation for Science, San Sebastián, Spain
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28
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Vlach HA. Learning to Remember Words: Memory Constraints as Double‐Edged Sword Mechanisms of Language Development. CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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29
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Wang FH, Zevin J, Mintz TH. Successfully learning non-adjacent dependencies in a continuous artificial language stream. Cogn Psychol 2019; 113:101223. [PMID: 31212192 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2019.101223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Revised: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Much of the statistical learning literature has focused on adjacent dependency learning, which has shown that learners are capable of extracting adjacent statistics from continuous language streams. In contrast, studies on non-adjacent dependency learning have mixed results, with some showing success and others failure. We review the literature on non-adjacent dependency learning and examine various theories proposed to account for these results, including the proposed necessity of the presence of pauses in the learning stream, or proposals regarding competition between adjacent and non-adjacent dependency learning such that high variability of middle elements is beneficial to learning. Here we challenge those accounts by showing successful learning of non-adjacent dependencies under conditions that are inconsistent with predictions of previous theories. We show that non-adjacent dependencies are learnable without pauses at dependency edges in a variety of artificial language designs. Moreover, we find no evidence of a relationship between non-adjacent dependency learning and the robustness of adjacent statistics. We demonstrate that our two-step statistical learning model can account for all of our non-adjacent dependency learning results, and provides a unified learning account of adjacent and non-adjacent dependency learning. Finally, we discussed the theoretical implications of our findings for natural language acquisition, and argue that the dependency learning process can be a precursor to other language acquisition tasks that are vital to natural language acquisition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Hao Wang
- Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, United States.
| | - Jason Zevin
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, United States; Department of Linguistics, University of Southern California, United States.
| | - Toben H Mintz
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, United States; Department of Linguistics, University of Southern California, United States.
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30
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Capacities and neural mechanisms for auditory statistical learning across species. Hear Res 2019; 376:97-110. [PMID: 30797628 DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2019.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Statistical learning has been proposed as a possible mechanism by which individuals can become sensitive to the structures of language fundamental for speech perception. Since its description in human infants, statistical learning has been described in human adults and several non-human species as a general process by which animals learn about stimulus-relevant statistics. The neurobiology of statistical learning is beginning to be understood, but many questions remain about the underlying mechanisms. Why is the developing brain particularly sensitive to stimulus and environmental statistics, and what neural processes are engaged in the adult brain to enable learning from statistical regularities in the absence of external reward or instruction? This review will survey the statistical learning abilities of humans and non-human animals with a particular focus on communicative vocalizations. We discuss the neurobiological basis of statistical learning, and specifically what can be learned by exploring this process in both humans and laboratory animals. Finally, we describe advantages of studying vocal communication in rodents as a means to further our understanding of the cortical plasticity mechanisms engaged during statistical learning. We examine the use of rodents in the context of pup retrieval, which is an auditory-based and experience-dependent form of maternal behavior.
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31
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Gervain J, la Cruz‐Pavía I, Gerken L. Behavioral and Imaging Studies of Infant Artificial Grammar Learning. Top Cogn Sci 2018; 12:815-827. [DOI: 10.1111/tops.12400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Revised: 07/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Judit Gervain
- Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception Université Paris Descartes
- Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception CNRS
| | - Irene la Cruz‐Pavía
- Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception Université Paris Descartes
- Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception CNRS
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Schonberg C, Marcus GF, Johnson SP. The roles of item repetition and position in infants' abstract rule learning. Infant Behav Dev 2018; 53:64-80. [PMID: 30262181 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2018.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We asked whether 11- and 14- month-old infants' abstract rule learning, an early form of analogical reasoning, is susceptible to processing constraints imposed by limits in attention and memory for sequence position. We examined 11- and 14- month-old infants' learning and generalization of abstract repetition rules ("repetition anywhere," Experiment 1 or "medial repetition," Experiment 2) and ordering of specific items (edge positions, Experiment 3) in 4-item sequences. Infants were habituated to sequences containing repetition- and/or position-based structure and then tested with "familiar" vs. "novel" (random) sequences composed of new items. Eleven-month-olds (N = 40) failed to learn abstract repetition rules, but 14-month-olds (N = 40) learned rules under both conditions. In Experiment 3, 11-month-olds (N = 20) learned item edge positions in sequences identical to those in Experiment 2. We conclude that infant sequence learning is constrained by item position in similar ways as in adults.
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33
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Tseng CH, Chow HM, Ma YK, Ding J. Preverbal infants utilize cross-modal semantic congruency in artificial grammar acquisition. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12707. [PMID: 30139964 PMCID: PMC6107625 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-30927-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Learning in a multisensory world is challenging as the information from different sensory dimensions may be inconsistent and confusing. By adulthood, learners optimally integrate bimodal (e.g. audio-visual, AV) stimulation by both low-level (e.g. temporal synchrony) and high-level (e.g. semantic congruency) properties of the stimuli to boost learning outcomes. However, it is unclear how this capacity emerges and develops. To approach this question, we examined whether preverbal infants were capable of utilizing high-level properties with grammar-like rule acquisition. In three experiments, we habituated pre-linguistic infants with an audio-visual (AV) temporal sequence that resembled a grammar-like rule (A-A-B). We varied the cross-modal semantic congruence of the AV stimuli (Exp 1: congruent syllables/faces; Exp 2: incongruent syllables/shapes; Exp 3: incongruent beeps/faces) while all the other low-level properties (e.g. temporal synchrony, sensory energy) were constant. Eight- to ten-month-old infants only learned the grammar-like rule from AV congruent stimuli pairs (Exp 1), not from incongruent AV pairs (Exp 2, 3). Our results show that similar to adults, preverbal infants' learning is influenced by a high-level multisensory integration gating system, pointing to a perceptual origin of bimodal learning advantage that was not previously acknowledged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Huei Tseng
- Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.
| | - Hiu Mei Chow
- Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, USA
| | - Yuen Ki Ma
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Jie Ding
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
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34
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Mueller JL, Cate CT, Toro JM. A Comparative Perspective on the Role of Acoustic Cues in Detecting Language Structure. Top Cogn Sci 2018; 12:859-874. [PMID: 30033636 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 05/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Most human language learners acquire language primarily via the auditory modality. This is one reason why auditory artificial grammars play a prominent role in the investigation of the development and evolutionary roots of human syntax. The present position paper brings together findings from human and non-human research on the impact of auditory cues on learning about linguistic structures with a special focus on how different types of cues and biases in auditory cognition may contribute to success and failure in artificial grammar learning (AGL). The basis of our argument is the link between auditory cues and syntactic structure across languages and development. Cross-species comparison suggests that many aspects of auditory cognition that are relevant for language are not human specific and are present even in rather distantly related species. Furthermore, auditory cues and biases impact on learning, which we will discuss in the example of auditory perception and AGL studies. This observation, together with the significant role of auditory cues in language processing, supports the idea that auditory cues served as a bootstrap to syntax during language evolution. Yet this also means that potentially human-specific syntactic abilities are not due to basic auditory differences between humans and non-human animals but are based upon more advanced cognitive processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carel Ten Cate
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University.,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition
| | - Juan M Toro
- ICREA (Institució Catalana de Recerca I Estudis Avançats).,Center for Brain and Cognition, University Pompeu Fabra
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35
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Ota M, Davies‐Jenkins N, Skarabela B. Why Choo-Choo Is Better Than Train: The Role of Register-Specific Words in Early Vocabulary Growth. Cogn Sci 2018; 42:1974-1999. [PMID: 29998604 PMCID: PMC6120503 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Across languages, lexical items specific to infant-directed speech (i.e., 'baby-talk words') are characterized by a preponderance of onomatopoeia (or highly iconic words), diminutives, and reduplication. These lexical characteristics may help infants discover the referential nature of words, identify word referents, and segment fluent speech into words. If so, the amount of lexical input containing these properties should predict infants' rate of vocabulary growth. To test this prediction, we tracked the vocabulary size in 47 English-learning infants from 9 to 21 months and examined whether the patterns of growth can be related to measures of iconicity, diminutives, and reduplication in the lexical input at 9 months. Our analyses showed that both diminutives and reduplication in the input were associated with vocabulary growth, although measures of iconicity were not. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that phonological properties typical of lexical input in infant-directed speech play a role in early vocabulary growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuhiko Ota
- School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language SciencesUniversity of Edinburgh
| | | | - Barbora Skarabela
- School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language SciencesUniversity of Edinburgh
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36
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Differences in relative frequency facilitate learning abstract rules. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2018; 83:384-394. [PMID: 29948183 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-018-1036-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Humans learn the rules that govern how the elements of their language are organized over an input that is often not homogeneous (it might contain noise, or even include rules from different linguistic systems, as it might be the case for bilinguals). In the present study we explore the conditions under which participants can learn an abstract rule when it is presented in a heterogeneous context. Results from six experiments show that listeners can learn a token-independent rule even if it is presented together with some exemplars that implement a different regularity (Experiment 1a and 1b). In fact, learning rules from an input containing several patterns does not seem to differ from learning them from an input containing only one (Experiment 1c). More surprisingly, we observed that listeners can even learn an abstract rule that is only implemented over 10% of the exemplars that compose a familiarization stream (Experiments 2a and 2b). When the proportion of tokens implementing the target and the non-target rules is balanced, we did not observe any learning (Experiment 3). Our results suggest that listeners use differences in relative frequency to keep separate linguistic rules apart. This allows them to learn different abstract regularities from a non-homogeneous linguistic signal.
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37
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Guevara-Rukoz A, Cristia A, Ludusan B, Thiollière R, Martin A, Mazuka R, Dupoux E. Are Words Easier to Learn From Infant- Than Adult-Directed Speech? A Quantitative Corpus-Based Investigation. Cogn Sci 2018; 42:1586-1617. [PMID: 29851142 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Revised: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We investigate whether infant-directed speech (IDS) could facilitate word form learning when compared to adult-directed speech (ADS). To study this, we examine the distribution of word forms at two levels, acoustic and phonological, using a large database of spontaneous speech in Japanese. At the acoustic level we show that, as has been documented before for phonemes, the realizations of words are more variable and less discriminable in IDS than in ADS. At the phonological level, we find an effect in the opposite direction: The IDS lexicon contains more distinctive words (such as onomatopoeias) than the ADS counterpart. Combining the acoustic and phonological metrics together in a global discriminability score reveals that the bigger separation of lexical categories in the phonological space does not compensate for the opposite effect observed at the acoustic level. As a result, IDS word forms are still globally less discriminable than ADS word forms, even though the effect is numerically small. We discuss the implication of these findings for the view that the functional role of IDS is to improve language learnability.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alejandrina Cristia
- Laboratoire de Sciences Cognitives et Psycholinguistique, ENS/EHESS/CNRS/PSL
| | - Bogdan Ludusan
- Laboratoire de Sciences Cognitives et Psycholinguistique, ENS/EHESS/CNRS/PSL
- Laboratory for Language Development, RIKEN Brain Science Institute
| | - Roland Thiollière
- Laboratoire de Sciences Cognitives et Psycholinguistique, ENS/EHESS/CNRS/PSL
| | - Andrew Martin
- Faculty of Letters, Department of English Literature and Language, Konan University
| | - Reiko Mazuka
- Laboratory for Language Development, RIKEN Brain Science Institute
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University
| | - Emmanuel Dupoux
- Laboratoire de Sciences Cognitives et Psycholinguistique, ENS/EHESS/CNRS/PSL
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38
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Malassis R, Rey A, Fagot J. Non-adjacent Dependencies Processing in Human and Non-human Primates. Cogn Sci 2018; 42:1677-1699. [PMID: 29781135 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Human and non-human primates share the ability to extract adjacent dependencies and, under certain conditions, non-adjacent dependencies (i.e., predictive relationships between elements that are separated by one or several intervening elements in a sequence). In this study, we explore the online extraction dynamics of non-adjacent dependencies in humans and baboons using a serial reaction time task. Participants had to produce three-target sequences containing deterministic relationships between the first and last target locations. In Experiment 1, participants from the two species could extract these non-adjacent dependencies, but humans required less exposure than baboons. In Experiment 2, the data show for the first time in a non-human primate species the successful generalization of sequential non-adjacent dependencies over novel intervening items. These findings provide new evidence to further constrain current theories about the nature and the evolutionary origins of the learning mechanisms allowing the extraction of non-adjacent dependencies.
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Sundara M. Why do children pay more attention to grammatical morphemes at the ends of sentences? JOURNAL OF CHILD LANGUAGE 2018; 45:703-716. [PMID: 29067896 DOI: 10.1017/s0305000917000356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Children pay more attention to the beginnings and ends of sentences rather than the middle. In natural speech, ends of sentences are prosodically and segmentally enhanced; they are also privileged by sensory and recall advantages. We contrasted whether acoustic enhancement or sensory and recall-related advantages are necessary and sufficient for the salience of grammatical morphemes at the ends of sentences. We measured 22-month-olds' listening times to grammatical and ungrammatical sentences with third person singular -s. Crucially, by cross-splicing the speech stimuli, acoustic enhancement and sensory and recall advantages were fully crossed. Only children presented with the verb in sentence-final position, a position with sensory and recall advantages, distinguished between the grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. Thus, sensory and recall advantages alone were necessary and sufficient to make grammatical morphemes at ends of sentences salient. These general processing constraints privilege ends of sentences over middles, regardless of the acoustic enhancement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megha Sundara
- Department of Linguistics,University of California,Los Angeles
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40
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Santolin C, Saffran JR. Constraints on Statistical Learning Across Species. Trends Cogn Sci 2018; 22:52-63. [PMID: 29150414 PMCID: PMC5777226 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2017.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Revised: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Both human and nonhuman organisms are sensitive to statistical regularities in sensory inputs that support functions including communication, visual processing, and sequence learning. One of the issues faced by comparative research in this field is the lack of a comprehensive theory to explain the relevance of statistical learning across distinct ecological niches. In the current review we interpret cross-species research on statistical learning based on the perceptual and cognitive mechanisms that characterize the human and nonhuman models under investigation. Considering statistical learning as an essential part of the cognitive architecture of an animal will help to uncover the potential ecological functions of this powerful learning process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Santolin
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Carrer Ramon Trias Fargas, 25-27, 08005 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Jenny R Saffran
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA
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41
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Ota M, Skarabela B. Reduplication facilitates early word segmentation. JOURNAL OF CHILD LANGUAGE 2018; 45:204-218. [PMID: 28162111 DOI: 10.1017/s0305000916000660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This study explores the possibility that early word segmentation is aided by infants' tendency to segment words with repeated syllables ('reduplication'). Twenty-four nine-month-olds were familiarized with passages containing one novel reduplicated word and one novel non-reduplicated word. Their central fixation times in response to these as well as new reduplicated and non-reduplicated words introduced at test showed that familiarized reduplicated words were segmented better than familiarized non-reduplicated words. These results demonstrate that infants are predisposed to segment words with repeated phonological elements, and suggest that register-specific words in infant-directed speech may have evolved in response to this learning bias.
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42
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Fischer-Baum S. A Common Representation of Serial Position in Language and Memory. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.plm.2018.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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43
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Nowak I, Baggio G. Developmental Constraints on Learning Artificial Grammars with Fixed, Flexible and Free Word Order. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1816. [PMID: 29089910 PMCID: PMC5651074 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Human learning, although highly flexible and efficient, is constrained in ways that facilitate or impede the acquisition of certain systems of information. Some such constraints, active during infancy and childhood, have been proposed to account for the apparent ease with which typically developing children acquire language. In a series of experiments, we investigated the role of developmental constraints on learning artificial grammars with a distinction between shorter and relatively frequent words ('function words,' F-words) and longer and less frequent words ('content words,' C-words). We constructed 4 finite-state grammars, in which the order of F-words, relative to C-words, was either fixed (F-words always occupied the same positions in a string), flexible (every F-word always followed a C-word), or free. We exposed adults (N = 84) and kindergarten children (N = 100) to strings from each of these artificial grammars, and we assessed their ability to recognize strings with the same structure, but a different vocabulary. Adults were better at recognizing strings when regularities were available (i.e., fixed and flexible order grammars), while children were better at recognizing strings from the grammars consistent with the attested distribution of function and content words in natural languages (i.e., flexible and free order grammars). These results provide evidence for a link between developmental constraints on learning and linguistic typology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iga Nowak
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- International School for Advanced Studies, Trieste, Italy
| | - Giosuè Baggio
- International School for Advanced Studies, Trieste, Italy
- Language Acquisition and Language Processing Lab, Department of Language and Literature, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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44
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Filippi P, Laaha S, Fitch WT. Utterance-final position and pitch marking aid word learning in school-age children. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:161035. [PMID: 28878961 PMCID: PMC5579076 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.161035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the effects of word order and prosody on word learning in school-age children. Third graders viewed photographs belonging to one of three semantic categories while hearing four-word nonsense utterances containing a target word. In the control condition, all words had the same pitch and, across trials, the position of the target word was varied systematically within each utterance. The only cue to word-meaning mapping was the co-occurrence of target words and referents. This cue was present in all conditions. In the Utterance-final condition, the target word always occurred in utterance-final position, and at the same fundamental frequency as all the other words of the utterance. In the Pitch peak condition, the position of the target word was varied systematically within each utterance across trials, and produced with pitch contrasts typical of infant-directed speech (IDS). In the Pitch peak + Utterance-final condition, the target word always occurred in utterance-final position, and was marked with a pitch contrast typical of IDS. Word learning occurred in all conditions except the control condition. Moreover, learning performance was significantly higher than that observed with simple co-occurrence (control condition) only for the Pitch peak + Utterance-final condition. We conclude that, for school-age children, the combination of words' utterance-final alignment and pitch enhancement boosts word learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piera Filippi
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sabine Laaha
- Department of Linguistics, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - W. Tecumseh Fitch
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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45
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Monte-Ordoño J, Toro JM. Early positivity signals changes in an abstract linguistic pattern. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180727. [PMID: 28678863 PMCID: PMC5498064 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The extraction of abstract structures from speech (or from gestures in the case of sign languages) has been claimed to be a fundamental mechanism for language acquisition. In the present study we registered the neural responses that are triggered when a violation of an abstract, token-independent rule is detected. We registered ERPs while presenting participants with trisyllabic CVCVCV nonsense words in an oddball paradigm. Standard stimuli followed an ABB rule (where A and B are different syllables). Importantly, to distinguish neural responses triggered by changes in surface information from responses triggered by changes in the underlying abstract structure, we used two types of deviant stimuli. Phoneme deviants differed from standards only in their phonemes. Rule deviants differed from standards in both their phonemes and their composing rule. We observed a significant positivity as early as 300 ms after the presentation of deviant stimuli that violated the abstract rule (Rule deviants). The amplitude of this neural response was correlated with participants’ performance in a behavioral rule learning test. Differences in electrophysiological responses observed between learners and non-learners suggest that individual differences in an abstract rule learning task might be related to how listeners select relevant sources of information.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Juan M. Toro
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
- ICREA, Pg. Lluís Companys, Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail:
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46
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Cross-linguistic differences in the use of durational cues for the segmentation of a novel language. Mem Cognit 2017; 45:863-876. [DOI: 10.3758/s13421-017-0700-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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47
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Versace E, Spierings MJ, Caffini M, Ten Cate C, Vallortigara G. Spontaneous generalization of abstract multimodal patterns in young domestic chicks. Anim Cogn 2017; 20:521-529. [PMID: 28260155 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-017-1079-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Revised: 01/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
From the early stages of life, learning the regularities associated with specific objects is crucial for making sense of experiences. Through filial imprinting, young precocial birds quickly learn the features of their social partners by mere exposure. It is not clear though to what extent chicks can extract abstract patterns of the visual and acoustic stimuli present in the imprinting object, and how they combine them. To investigate this issue, we exposed chicks (Gallus gallus) to three days of visual and acoustic imprinting, using either patterns with two identical items or patterns with two different items, presented visually, acoustically or in both modalities. Next, chicks were given a choice between the familiar and the unfamiliar pattern, present in either the multimodal, visual or acoustic modality. The responses to the novel stimuli were affected by their imprinting experience, and the effect was stronger for chicks imprinted with multimodal patterns than for the other groups. Interestingly, males and females adopted a different strategy, with males more attracted by unfamiliar patterns and females more attracted by familiar patterns. Our data show that chicks can generalize abstract patterns by mere exposure through filial imprinting and that multimodal stimulation is more effective than unimodal stimulation for pattern learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Versace
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Piazza della Manifattura 1, 38068, Rovereto, Italy.
| | - Michelle J Spierings
- Behavioural Biology, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, 2300 RA, The Netherlands.,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Leiden, 2300 RC, The Netherlands
| | - Matteo Caffini
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Piazza della Manifattura 1, 38068, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Carel Ten Cate
- Behavioural Biology, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, 2300 RA, The Netherlands.,Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Leiden, 2300 RC, The Netherlands
| | - Giorgio Vallortigara
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Piazza della Manifattura 1, 38068, Rovereto, Italy
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48
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Endress AD, Langus A. Transitional probabilities count more than frequency, but might not be used for memorization. Cogn Psychol 2016; 92:37-64. [PMID: 27907807 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2016.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Learners often need to extract recurring items from continuous sequences, in both vision and audition. The best-known example is probably found in word-learning, where listeners have to determine where words start and end in fluent speech. This could be achieved through universal and experience-independent statistical mechanisms, for example by relying on Transitional Probabilities (TPs). Further, these mechanisms might allow learners to store items in memory. However, previous investigations have yielded conflicting evidence as to whether a sensitivity to TPs is diagnostic of the memorization of recurring items. Here, we address this issue in the visual modality. Participants were familiarized with a continuous sequence of visual items (i.e., arbitrary or everyday symbols), and then had to choose between (i) high-TP items that appeared in the sequence, (ii) high-TP items that did not appear in the sequence, and (iii) low-TP items that appeared in the sequence. Items matched in TPs but differing in (chunk) frequency were much harder to discriminate than items differing in TPs (with no significant sensitivity to chunk frequency), and learners preferred unattested high-TP items over attested low-TP items. Contrary to previous claims, these results cannot be explained on the basis of the similarity of the test items. Learners thus weigh within-item TPs higher than the frequency of the chunks, even when the TP differences are relatively subtle. We argue that these results are problematic for distributional clustering mechanisms that analyze continuous sequences, and provide supporting computational results. We suggest that the role of TPs might not be to memorize items per se, but rather to prepare learners to memorize recurring items once they are presented in subsequent learning situations with richer cues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alan Langus
- Cognitive Neuroscience Sector, International School for Advanced Studies, Trieste, Italy
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Abstract
Language learners encounter numerous opportunities to learn regularities, but need to decide which of these regularities to learn, because some are not productive in their native language. Here, we present an account of rule learning based on perceptual and memory primitives (Endress, Dehaene-Lambertz, & Mehler, Cognition, 105(3), 577–614, 2007; Endress, Nespor, & Mehler, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(8), 348–353, 2009), suggesting that learners preferentially learn regularities that are more salient to them, and that the pattern of salience reflects the frequency of language features across languages. We contrast this view with previous artificial grammar learning research, which suggests that infants “choose” the regularities they learn based on rational, Bayesian criteria (Frank & Tenenbaum, Cognition, 120(3), 360–371, 2013; Gerken, Cognition, 98(3)B67–B74, 2006, Cognition, 115(2), 362–366, 2010). In our experiments, adult participants listened to syllable strings starting with a syllable reduplication and always ending with the same “affix” syllable, or to syllable strings starting with this “affix” syllable and ending with the “reduplication”. Both affixation and reduplication are frequently used for morphological marking across languages. We find three crucial results. First, participants learned both regularities simultaneously. Second, affixation regularities seemed easier to learn than reduplication regularities. Third, regularities in sequence offsets were easier to learn than regularities at sequence onsets. We show that these results are inconsistent with previous Bayesian rule learning models, but mesh well with the perceptual or memory primitives view. Further, we show that the pattern of salience revealed in our experiments reflects the distribution of regularities across languages. Ease of acquisition might thus be one determinant of the frequency of regularities across languages.
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Artificial grammar learning in zebra finches and human adults: XYX versus XXY. Anim Cogn 2016; 18:151-64. [PMID: 25015135 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-014-0786-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Revised: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Abstracting syntactic rules is critical to human language learning. It is debated whether this ability, already present in young infants, is human- and language specific or can also be found in non-human animals, indicating it may arise from more general cognitive mechanisms. Current studies are often ambiguous and few have directly compared rule learning by humans and non-human animals. In a series of discrimination experiments, we presented zebra finches and human adults with comparable training and tests with the same artificial stimuli consisting of XYX and XXY structures, in which X and Y were zebra finch song elements. Zebra finches readily discriminated the training stimuli. Some birds also discriminated novel stimuli when these were composed of familiar element types, but none of the birds generalized the discrimination to novel element types. We conclude that zebra finches show evidence of simple rule abstraction related to positional learning, suggesting stimulus-bound generalization, but found no evidence for a more abstract rule generalization. This differed from the human adults, who categorized novel stimuli consisting of novel element types into different groups according to their structure. The limited abilities for rule abstraction in zebra finches may indicate what the precursors of more complex abstraction as found in humans may have been like.
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