Early Adversity and Critical Periods: Neurodevelopmental Consequences of Violating the Expectable Environment

Effect of prenatal phthalate exposure on fetal development and maternal/neonatal health consequences: A systematic review

The ubiquitous presence of phthalate compounds in cosmetics, personal care products and plastics commonly used in toys, food packaging or household products, results in human exposure with adverse effects on reproductive health and fetal development. Following the PRISMA methodology, this systematic review analyzes the effect of prenatal phthalate exposure on major pregnancy complications, such as gestational diabetes, pregnancy-induced hypertension, fetal growth restriction and preterm birth, and its role in fetal neurodevelopment. This review includes >100 articles published in the last 10 years, showing an association between maternal exposure to phthalates and the risk of developing pregnancy complications. Phthalates are negatively associated with motor skills and memory, and also increase the risk of delayed language acquisition, autism spectrum disorder traits, and behavioral deficits, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children prenatally exposed to phthalates. Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and its metabolites (mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate, mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate, mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate) are the main compounds associated with the above-mentioned pregnancy complications and fetal neurodevelopmental disorders. In addition, this review discusses the molecular mechanisms responsible for various pregnancy complications and neurodevelopmental disorders, and the critical window of exposure, in order to clarify these aspects. Globally, the most common molecular mechanisms involved in the effects of phthalates are endocrine disruption, oxidative stress induction, intrauterine inflammation, and DNA methylation disorders. In general, the critical window of exposure varies depending on the pathophysiology of the complication being studied, although the first trimester is considered an important period because some of the most vulnerable processes (embryogenesis and placentation) begin early in pregnancy. Future research should aim to understand the specific mechanism of the disruptive effect of each component and to establish the toxic dose of phthalates, as well as to elucidate the most critical period of pregnancy for exposure and the long-term consequences for human health.

Lifestyle-specific association between adversity dimensions with group-based mental health trajectories

BACKGROUND

Childhood adversity (CA) has a substantial correlation with mental health problems. Keeping a healthy lifestyle is essential for mental health interventions; it is unclear, however, how healthy lifestyle affect the relationship between CA and persistent mental health problems.

METHODS

This longitudinal study (n = 1112, 54.5 % male) collected the data on CA (measured through three dimensions: threat, deprivation and unpredictability), mental health problems, and lifestyle factors. Group-based multi-trajectory modeling (GBMTM) was utilized to estimate trajectories for three mental health problems (i.e., depression, ADHD and overanxiety). Close friendships, regular physical activity, appropriate sleep duration, shorter screen time, and healthy eating were combined to establish a healthy lifestyle score (which ranges from 0 to 5). Higher scores indicated a healthier lifestyle.

RESULTS

Three trajectories of mental health problems were identified: persistently low risk (24.9 %), persistently medium-high risk (50.0 %), and persistently high risk (25.1 %). Multinomial logistic regression showed that high adversity (high-threat: β = 2.01, P < 0.001; high-deprivation: β = 1.03, P < 0.001; high-unpredictability: β = 0.83, P = 0.001; high-overall adversity: β = 1.64, P < 0.001) resulted in a persistently high risk of mental health problems; these outcomes were maintained after robust control for covariates. Further lifestyle stratification, null associations were observed among children with a healthy lifestyle, irrespective of their gender; however, after controlling for covariates, the above associations remained relatively stable only among boys.

LIMITATIONS

The generalizability of our findings is restricted by 1) limited racial diversity and 2) missing data.

CONCLUSIONS

This finding underscores the benefits of promoting a healthy lifestyle in children to prevent persistent mental health problems caused by CA.

Revisiting adolescence as a sensitive period for sociocultural processing

Waves of research and public discourse have characterized adolescence as periods of developmental risk and opportunity. Underlying this discussion is the recognition that adolescence is a period of major biological and social transition when experience may have an outsized effect on development. This article updates and expands upon prior work suggesting that adolescence may be a sensitive period for sociocultural processing specifically. By integrating evidence from developmental psychology and neuroscience, we identify how trajectories of social and neurobiological development may relate to adolescents' ability to adapt to and learn from their social environments. However, we also highlight gaps in the literature, including challenges in attributing developmental change to adolescent experiences. We discuss the importance of better understanding variability in biology (e.g., pubertal development) and cultural environments, as well as distinguishing between sensitive periods and periods of heightened sensitivity. Finally, we look toward future directions and translational implications of this research.

Greater attention to socioeconomic status in developmental research can improve the external validity, generalizability, and replicability of developmental science

Psychological researchers have been criticized for making broad presumptions about human behavior based on limited sampling. In part, presumptive generalizability is reflected in the limited representation of sociodemographic variation in research reports. In this analysis, we examine time-trends in reporting of a key sociodemographic construct relevant to many aspects of child development-socioeconomic status (SES)-across six mainstream developmental journals (Infancy, Child Development, Developmental Science, Developmental Psychology, Infant and Child Development, and Infant Behavior & Development) between 2016 and 2022. Findings point to limited reporting of SES across developmental journals and across time. Reporting rates varied significantly by region and by topic of development. In terms of specific indicators of SES, there was consistent use of income and caregiver education as SES indicators. The epistemic costs of the lack of integration of socio-economic factors in developmental research are addressed. Pathways to greater integration of SES are proposed. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: We analyzed reporting and representation of socioeconomic status in published studies on early child development. A large proportion of published studies did not report any socio-economic information. Suggestions for greater attention to socioeconomic status are proposed.

Maternal adverse childhood experiences and infant visual-limbic white matter development

BACKGROUND

Maternal adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are robust predictors of mental health for both the exposed individual and the next generation; however, the pathway through which such intergenerational risk is conferred remains unknown. The current study evaluated the association between maternal ACEs and infant brain development, including an a priori focus on circuits implicated in emotional and sensory processing.

METHODS

The sample included 101 mother-infant dyads from a longitudinal study. Maternal ACEs were assessed with the Adverse Childhood Questionnaire dichotomized into low (0 or 1) and high (≥2) groups. White matter microstructure, as indexed by fractional anisotropy (FA), was assessed using structural magnetic resonance imaging in infants (41.6-46.0 weeks' postconceptional age) within a priori tracts (the cingulum, fornix, uncinate, inferior frontal occipital fasciculus, and inferior longitudinal fasciculus). Exploratory analyses were also conducted across the whole brain.

RESULTS

High maternal ACEs (≥2) were associated with decreased infant left inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF) FA (F(1,94) = 7.78, p < .006) relative to infants of low ACE mothers. No group difference was observed within the right ILF following correction for multiple comparisons (F(1,95) = 4.29, p < .041). Follow-up analyses within the left ILF demonstrated associations between high maternal ACEs and increased left radial diffusivity (F(1,95) = 5.10, p < .006). Exploratory analyses demonstrated preliminary support for differences in visual processing networks (e.g. optic tract) as well as additional circuits less frequently examined in the context of early life adversity exposure, (e.g. corticothalamic tract).

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal ACEs predict neural circuit development of the inferior longitudinal fasciculus. Findings suggest that early developing sensory circuits within the infant brain are susceptible to maternal adverse childhood experiences and may have implications for the maturation of higher order emotional and cognitive circuits.

Predictors of the rate and course of reactive attachment disorder and disinhibited social engagement disorder symptoms in foster children during the first year of placement

BACKGROUND

Due to adverse care experiences, foster children are at risk for developing symptoms of reactive attachment disorder (RAD) and disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED).

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the factors influencing rate and course of RAD and DSED symptoms during the first year of placement in long-term foster care.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

The sample consisted of 55 foster children aged 1 to 6 years. Measurements were taken at placement as well as 6 and 12 months after placement.

METHODS

RAD and DSED symptoms were assessed with the Disturbance of Attachment Interview (DAI). DSED symptoms were also assessed by observation with the Rating of Infant Stranger Engagement (RISE). Foster parents and caseworkers reported on children's preplacement experiences and placement characteristics.

RESULTS

RAD symptoms were rare at Wave 1 (5.5 %) and remitted in most children within the first six months of placement, t(54) = 3.06, p = .003. A total of 30.9 % of the foster children presented DSED symptoms according to the DAI, but only 5.5 % of the children according to the RISE. Foster parents reported symptom reduction, t(54) = 3.71, p = .003, while observational data indicated symptom stability. Prior placement in emergency foster care was associated with lower levels of RAD at Wave 1, F(1.62, 80.88) = 7.80, p = .002, while later placed children presented more RAD and DSED symptoms (RRAD2 = 0.07, RDSED2 = 0.08, RRISE2 = 0.12). Psychopathology of the biological parents (RRAD2 = 0.07, RDSED2 = 0.08) and visitation with the biological parents (RRISE2 = 0.14) predicted symptom stability.

CONCLUSION

A substantial number of foster children present persistent DSED symptoms indicating a need for evidenced based interventions.

Synchrony perception across senses: A systematic review of temporal binding window changes from infancy to adolescence in typical and atypical development

Sensory integration is increasingly acknowledged as being crucial for the development of cognitive and social abilities. However, its developmental trajectory is still little understood. This systematic review delves into the topic by investigating the literature about the developmental changes from infancy through adolescence of the Temporal Binding Window (TBW) - the epoch of time within which sensory inputs are perceived as simultaneous and therefore integrated. Following comprehensive searches across PubMed, Elsevier, and PsycInfo databases, only experimental, behavioral, English-language, peer-reviewed studies on multisensory temporal processing in 0-17-year-olds have been included. Non-behavioral, non-multisensory, and non-human studies have been excluded as those that did not directly focus on the TBW. The selection process was independently performed by two Authors. The 39 selected studies involved 2859 participants in total. Findings indicate a predisposition towards cross-modal asynchrony sensitivity and a composite, still unclear, developmental trajectory, with atypical development associated to increased asynchrony tolerance. These results highlight the need for consistent and thorough research into TBW development to inform potential interventions.

Trajectories of brain and behaviour development in the womb, at birth and through infancy

Birth is often seen as the starting point for studying effects of the environment on human development, with much research focused on the capacities of young infants. However, recent imaging advances have revealed that the complex behaviours of the fetus and the uterine environment exert influence. Birth is now viewed as a punctuate event along a developmental pathway of increasing autonomy of the child from their mother. Here we highlight (1) increasing physiological autonomy and perceptual sensitivity in the fetus, (2) physiological and neurochemical processes associated with birth that influence future behaviour, (3) the recalibration of motor and sensory systems in the newborn to adapt to the world outside the womb and (4) the effect of the prenatal environment on later infant behaviours and brain function. Taken together, these lines of evidence move us beyond nature-nurture issues to a developmental human lifespan view beginning within the womb.

Longitudinal trajectories of brain development from infancy to school age and their relationship to literacy development

Reading is one of the most complex skills that we utilize daily, and it involves the early development and interaction of various lower-level subskills, including phonological processing and oral language. These subskills recruit brain structures, which begin to develop long before the skill manifests and exhibit rapid development during infancy. However, how longitudinal trajectories of early brain development in these structures supports long-term acquisition of literacy subskills and subsequent reading is unclear. Children underwent structural and diffusion MRI scanning at multiple timepoints between infancy and second grade and were tested for literacy subskills in preschool and decoding and word reading in early elementary school. We developed and implemented a reproducible pipeline to generate longitudinal trajectories of early brain development to examine associations between these trajectories and literacy (sub)skills. Furthermore, we examined whether familial risk of reading difficulty and a child's home literacy environment, two common literacy-related covariates, influenced those trajectories. Results showed that individual differences in curve features (e.g., intercepts and slopes) for longitudinal trajectories of volumetric, surface-based, and white matter organization measures in left-hemispheric reading-related regions and tracts were linked directly to phonological processing and indirectly to second-grade decoding and word reading skills via phonological processing. Altogether, these findings suggest that the brain bases of phonological processing, previously identified as the strongest behavioral predictor of reading and decoding skills, may already begin to develop early in infancy but undergo further refinement between birth and preschool. The present study underscores the importance of considering academic skill acquisition from the very beginning of life.

Patterns of Adverse Childhood Experiences and Neurocognitive Development

Importance

Early life adversity is associated with higher risk of many adult health problems, including mental illness, substance abuse, suicide attempt, and chronic diseases. Many previous studies investigated adversities one at a time or investigated the health toll associated with the cumulative number of adversities.

Objective

To examine the co-occurrence of adversities among children and how specific patterns of adversities are associated with neurocognitive development.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study used data from the Collaborative Perinatal Project (CPP), which enrolled a national sample of women during pregnancy and followed their offspring to ages 7 to 8 years, between 1959 and 1974. The CPP was a community-based study conducted in 12 US medical centers. The CPP sample was ascertained through prenatal clinics and is diverse with respect to race and socioeconomic status. Data analysis was performed from August 2023 to March 2024.

Exposures

A latent class analysis was conducted of 12 adverse childhood experiences that occurred between birth and 7 years to identify common patterns of childhood adversities.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Five neurocognitive tests were used to measure children's visual-motor, sensory-motor, auditory-vocal, intelligence quotient, and academic skills.

Results

The analysis sample included 49 853 offspring (25 226 boys [50.6%]); 24 436 children (49.0%) had low probability of experiencing any adversity, whereas the remaining half were classified into 5 groups reflecting distinct patterns of childhood adversities: parental harshness and neglect, 1625 children (3.3%); parental separation and poverty, 8731 children (17.5%); family instability, 3655 children (7.3%); family loss, instability, and poverty, 1505 children (3.0%); and crowded housing and poverty, 9901 children (19.9%). Children in 4 of these groups had lower neurocognitive scores than children with a low probability of experiencing adversity, with standardized mean differences ranging from -0.07 (95% CI, -0.11 to -0.03) to -0.86 (95% CI, -1.06 to -0.65).

Conclusions and Relevance

These findings suggest that adverse childhood experiences are associated with deficits in children's neurocognitive functions. It is important to understand the complexity in children's exposure to adversity and the resulting developmental consequences, as well as the underlying mechanisms, to help support children exposed to adversity and foster healthier and resilient trajectories of development.

Racial and ethnic socioenvironmental inequity and neuroimaging in psychiatry: a brief review of the past and recommendations for the future

Neuroimaging is a major tool that holds immense translational potential for understanding psychiatric disorder phenomenology and treatment. However, although epidemiological and social research highlights the many ways inequity and representativeness influences mental health, there is a lack of consideration of how such issues may impact neuroimaging features in psychiatric research. More specifically, the potential extent to which racialized inequities may affect underlying neurobiology and impact the generalizability of neural models of disorders is unclear. The present review synthesizes research focused on understanding the potential consequences of racial/ethnic inequities relevant to neuroimaging in psychiatry. We first discuss historical and contemporary drivers of inequities that persist today. We then discuss the neurobiological consequences of these inequities as revealed through current research, and note emergent research demonstrating the impact such inequities have on our ability to use neuroimaging to understand psychiatric disease. We end with a set of recommendations and practices to move the field towards more equitable approaches that will advance our abilities to develop truly generalizable neurobiological models of psychiatric disorders.

Directed exploration is elevated in affective disorders but reduced by an aversive interoceptive state induction

Elevated anxiety and uncertainty avoidance are known to exacerbate maladaptive choice in individuals with affective disorders. However, the differential roles of state vs. trait anxiety remain unclear, and underlying computational mechanisms have not been thoroughly characterized. In the present study, we investigated how a somatic (interoceptive) state anxiety induction influences learning and decision-making under uncertainty in individuals with clinically significant levels of trait anxiety. A sample of 58 healthy comparisons (HCs) and 61 individuals with affective disorders (iADs; i.e., depression and/or anxiety) completed a previously validated explore-exploit decision task, with and without an added breathing resistance manipulation designed to induce state anxiety. Computational modeling revealed a pattern in which iADs showed greater information-seeking (i.e., directed exploration; Cohen's d=.39, p=.039) in resting conditions, but that this was reduced by the anxiety induction. The affective disorders group also showed slower learning rates across conditions (Cohen's d=.52, p=.003), suggesting more persistent uncertainty. These findings highlight a complex interplay between trait anxiety and state anxiety. Specifically, while elevated trait anxiety is associated with persistent uncertainty, acute somatic anxiety can paradoxically curtail exploratory behaviors, potentially reinforcing maladaptive decision-making patterns in affective disorders.

Task-Rest Reconfiguration Efficiency of the Reward Network Across Adolescence and Its Association With Early Life Stress and Depressive Symptoms

OBJECTIVE

Adolescents face significant changes in many domains of their daily lives that require them to flexibly adapt to changing environmental demands. To shift efficiently among various goals, adolescents must reconfigure their brains, disengaging from previous tasks and engaging in new activities.

METHOD

To examine this reconfiguration, we obtained resting-state and task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans in a community sample of 164 youths. We assessed the similarity of functional connectivity (FC) of the reward network between resting state and a reward-processing state, indexing the degree of reward network reconfiguration required to meet task demands. Given research documenting relations among reward network function, early life stress (ELS), and adolescent depression, we examined the association of reconfiguration efficiency with age across adolescence, the moderating effect of ELS on this association, and the relation between reconfiguration efficiency and depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

We found that older adolescents showed greater reconfiguration efficiency than younger adolescents and, furthermore, that this age-related association was moderated by the experience of ELS.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that reconfiguration efficiency of the reward network increases over adolescence, a developmental pattern that is attenuated in adolescents exposed to severe ELS. In addition, even after controlling for the effects of age and exposure to ELS, adolescents with higher levels of depressive symptoms exhibited greater reconfiguration efficiency, suggesting that they have brain states at rest that are more strongly optimized for reward processing than do asymptomatic youth.

DIVERSITY & INCLUSION STATEMENT

We worked to ensure race, ethnic, and/or other types of diversity in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure sex and gender balance in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure that the study questionnaires were prepared in an inclusive way. One or more of the authors of this paper self-identifies as a member of one or more historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science.

Faster pace of hippocampal growth mediates the association between perinatal adversity and childhood depression

Early life adversity has been posited to influence the pace of structural neurodevelopment. Most research, however, has relied on cross-sectional data, which do not reveal whether the pace of neurodevelopmental change is accelerated or slowed following early exposures. In a birth cohort study that included neuroimaging data obtained at 4.5, 6, and 7.5 years of age (N = 784), we examined associations among a cumulative measure of perinatal adversity relative to resources, nonlinear trajectories of hippocampal and amygdala volume, and children's subsequent depressive symptoms at 8.5 years of age. Greater adversity was associated with reduced bilateral hippocampal body volume in early childhood, but also to faster growth in the right hippocampal body across childhood. Further, the association between adversity and childhood depressive symptoms was mediated by faster hippocampal body growth. These findings suggest that perinatal adversity is biologically embedded in hippocampal structure development, including an accelerated pace of change in the right hippocampal body that is implicated in children's psychopathology risk. In addition, our findings suggest that reduced hippocampal volume is not inconsistent with accelerated hippocampal change; these aspects of structural development may typically co-occur, as smaller regional volumes in early childhood were associated with faster growth across childhood.

Exploring networks of complex developmental trauma symptomatology among children and adolescents involved in child welfare

Background

Clinical presentations of child and adolescent psychopathology can vary systematically for boys and girls. While network analysis is increasingly being applied to explore psychopathology in adults, there is a dearth of network studies considering differences in symptoms for boys and girls, particularly in developmental trauma-related symptomatology.

Methods

This study involves rural children (n = 375, 39.47% girls) and adolescents (n = 291, 51.20% girls) involved with child protection services in Ontario, Canada. Caregivers completed the Assessment Checklist for Children or Adolescents within the first 6 months of care. Psychometric network analyses were conducted using subscales for boys and girls. Differences were examined via network comparison permutation tests, moderated network models, and independent t-tests.

Results

Attachment-related interpersonal difficulties were the most central nodes in the child and adolescent networks for both boys and girls. Emotional dysregulation also had high strength centrality for adolescents. While network comparison tests found the overall network structures and global network strength to be invariant between boys and girls for children and adolescents, moderated network models and independent t-tests revealed several differences with regards to the expression of specific symptoms. Among children, girls exhibited more indiscriminate and pseudomature interpersonal behaviors, whereas boys expressed significantly more non-reciprocal interpersonal behaviors and self-injury. Adolescent girls exhibited more behavioral dysregulation and suicide discourse in the moderated network model; t-tests also indicated higher levels of emotional dysregulation, negative self-image, and other items considered clinically important complex trauma symptoms (e.g., distrust of adults, confused belonging).

Discussion

This study supports evidence of differences in the expression of complex trauma symptomatology for boys and girls. Additionally, girls exhibit more symptoms, in general. Consistent with the transdiagnostic conceptualization of the consequences of developmental trauma, findings demonstrate the primacy of attachment-specific difficulties and emotion dysregulation.

Cognitive Functioning of Children in Out-of-Home Care

PURPOSE

Most children who enter out-of-home care (OHC) have been subjected to prolonged maltreatment. Maltreatment potentially contributes to a cumulative deficit in neurocognitive maturation and development that is likely to proceed with the child's placement into OHC and persist throughout adulthood. From the theoretical perspective of how maltreatment may affect the developing brain, this study examines the IQ and executive function of children placed in OHC on standardized, norm-referenced measures. Furthermore, the study investigates the prevalence of serious cognitive delays, defined by scores in the clinical range on the administered instruments.

METHODS

The study included 153 children in foster care (66% female), aged 6-15 (M = 10.5, SD = 2.1). Independent two-sample t-tests were run to test for significant differences between the sample and the norm population on the applied neuropsychological measures.

RESULTS

The results showed that discrepancies in cognitive development were global in scope, with the children lagging significantly behind the norm population on all applied measures with discrepancies ranging from 0.61 to 2.10 SD (p < .001). Also, serious developmental delays in all cognitive domains were vastly overrepresented in the sample ranging from 11.3% (IQ) to 66.0% (executive function).

CONCLUSIONS

The results document a very high prevalence of cognitive deficits and delays among the children in the sample. The implications of identifying the neurocognitive effects of maltreatment in the practices of the child welfare system are discussed in terms of developing suitable assessment and intervention strategies.

Group-based sleep trajectories in children and adolescents: A systematic review

Sleep is crucial for health and development. Evidence indicates that sleep changes over time and distinct subgroups may experience different longitudinal patterns. This study systematically reviewed the studies that used latent trajectory modeling to investigate sleep trajectories of children and adolescents aged 0-18 years, and summarized the associated determinants and health-related outcomes. We searched PubMed, Embase, CENTRAL, PsycINFO, and Web of Science, identifying 46 articles that met our criteria. To ensure the reliability of the review, only studies rated as good or fair in terms of methodological quality were included, resulting in a total of 36 articles. Group-based trajectories were identified on several sleep dimensions (i.e., sleep duration, general and specific sleep problems, and bed-sharing behavior) and three or four trajectories were reported in most studies. There was a convergence trend across sleep duration trajectories during the first six years of life. Studies on specific sleep problem (i.e., insomnia, night-waking, and sleep-onset difficulties) typically identified two trajectories: consistent, minimal symptoms or chronic yet fluctuating symptoms. Lower socioeconomic status, maternal depression, and night feeding behaviors were the most frequently reported determinants of sleep trajectories. Membership in a group with certain adverse patterns (e.g., persistent short sleep duration) was associated with increased risks of multiple negative health-related conditions, such as obesity, compromised immunity, neurological problems, substance use, or internalizing/externalizing symptoms. Generally, there is potential to improve the quality of studies in this field. Causality is hard to be inferred within the current body of literature. Future studies could emphasize early life sleep, incorporate more assessment timepoints, use objective measures, and employ experimental design to better understand changes of and mechanisms behind the various sleep trajectories and guide targeted interventions for at-risk subpopulations.

Effects of early life adversity and adolescent basolateral amygdala activity on corticolimbic connectivity and anxiety behaviors

Early postnatal development of corticolimbic circuitry is shaped by the environment and is vulnerable to early life challenges. Prior work has shown that early life adversity (ELA) leads to hyperinnervation of glutamatergic basolateral amygdala (BLA) projections to the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in adolescence. While hyperinnervation is associated with later-life anxiety behaviors, the physiological changes underpinning corticolimbic and behavioral impacts of ELA are not understood. We tested whether postsynaptic BLA-driven PFC activity is enhanced in ELA-exposed animals, using the maternal separation (MS) model of ELA. PFC local-field potential following BLA stimulation was facilitated in MS-exposed adolescents. Since ELA increases activity of the early-developing BLA, while the PFC exhibits protracted development, we further examined impacts of glutamatergic BLA activity during early adolescence on later-life PFC innervation and heightened anxiety. In early adolescence, MS-exposed animals exhibited decreased anxiety-like behavior, and acute adolescent BLA inhibition induced behaviors that resembled those of MS animals. To examine long-lasting impacts of adolescent BLA activity on innervation, BLA-originating axonal boutons in the PFC were quantified in late adolescence after early adolescent BLA inhibition. We further tested whether late adolescent BLA-PFC changes were associated with anxious reactivity expressed as heightened acoustic startle responses. MS rearing increased BLA-PFC innervation and threat reactivity in late adolescence, however early adolescent BLA inhibition was insufficient to prevent MS effects, suggesting that earlier BLA activity or post-synaptic receptor rearrangement in the PFC drives altered innervation. Taken together, these findings highlight both pre- and postsynaptic changes in the adolescent BLA-PFC circuit following ELA.

Epigenetic mechanisms linking early-life adversities and mental health

Early-life adversities, whether prenatal or postnatal exposure, have been linked to adverse mental health outcomes later in life increasing the risk of several psychiatric disorders. Research on its neurobiological consequences demonstrated an association between exposure to adversities and persistent alterations in the structure, function, and connectivity of the brain. Consistent evidence supports the idea that regulation of gene expression through epigenetic mechanisms are involved in embedding the impact of early-life experiences in the genome and mediate between social environments and later behavioral phenotypes. In addition, studies from rodent models and humans suggest that these experiences and the acquired risk factors can be transmitted through epigenetic mechanisms to offspring and the following generations potentially contributing to a cycle of disease or disease risk. However, one of the important aspects of epigenetic mechanisms, unlike genetic sequences that are fixed and unchangeable, is that although the epigenetic markings are long-lasting, they are nevertheless potentially reversible. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the epigenetic mechanisms involved in the mental health consequences derived from early-life exposure to malnutrition, maltreatment and poverty, adversities with huge and pervasive impact on mental health. We also discuss the evidence about transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in mammals and experimental data suggesting that suitable social and pharmacological interventions could reverse adverse epigenetic modifications induced by early-life negative social experiences. In this regard, these studies must be accompanied by efforts to determine the causes that promote these adversities and that result in health inequity in the population.

Associations Between Neighborhood Resources and Youths' Response to Reward Omission in a Task Modeling Negatively Biased Environments

OBJECTIVE

Neighborhoods provide essential resources (eg, education, safe housing, green space) that influence neurodevelopment and mental health. However, we need a clearer understanding of the mechanisms mediating these relationships. Limited access to neighborhood resources may hinder youths from achieving their goals and, over time, shape their behavioral and neurobiological response to negatively biased environments blocking goals and rewards.

METHOD

To test this hypothesis, 211 youths (aged ∼13.0 years, 48% boys, 62% identifying as White, 75% with a psychiatric disorder diagnosis) performed a task during functional magnetic resonance imaging. Initially, rewards depended on performance (unbiased condition); but later, rewards were randomly withheld under the pretense that youths did not perform adequately (negatively biased condition), a manipulation that elicits frustration, sadness, and a broad response in neural networks. We investigated associations between the Childhood Opportunity Index (COI), which quantifies access to youth-relevant neighborhood features in 1 metric, and the multimodal response to the negatively biased condition, controlling for age, sex, medication, and psychopathology.

RESULTS

Youths from less-resourced neighborhoods responded with less anger (p < .001, marginal R2 = 0.42) and more sadness (p < .001, marginal R2 = 0.46) to the negatively biased condition than youths from well-resourced neighborhoods. On the neurobiological level, lower COI scores were associated with a more localized processing mode (p = .039, marginal R2 = 0.076), reduced connectivity between the somatic-motor-salience and the control network (p = .041, marginal R2 = 0.040), and fewer provincial hubs in the somatic-motor-salience, control, and default mode networks (all pFWE < .05).

CONCLUSION

The present study adds to a growing literature documenting how inequity may affect the brain and emotions in youths. Future work should test whether findings generalize to more diverse samples and should explore effects on neurodevelopmental trajectories and emerging mood disorders during adolescence.

DIVERSITY & INCLUSION STATEMENT

One or more of the authors of this paper self-identifies as a member of one or more historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science. One or more of the authors of this paper self-identifies as a member of one or more historically underrepresented sexual and/or gender groups in science. One or more of the authors of this paper received support from a program designed to increase minority representation in science. We actively worked to promote sex and gender balance in our author group. We actively worked to promote inclusion of historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science in our author group.

Maintaining a Dynamic Brain: A Review of Empirical Findings Describing the Roles of Exercise, Learning, and Environmental Enrichment in Neuroplasticity from 2017-2023

Brain plasticity, also termed neuroplasticity, refers to the brain's life-long ability to reorganize itself in response to various changes in the environment, experiences, and learning. The brain is a dynamic organ capable of responding to stimulating or depriving environments, activities, and circumstances from changes in gene expression, release of neurotransmitters and neurotrophic factors, to cellular reorganization and reprogrammed functional connectivity. The rate of neuroplastic alteration varies across the lifespan, creating further challenges for understanding and manipulating these processes to benefit motor control, learning, memory, and neural remodeling after injury. Neuroplasticity-related research spans several decades, and hundreds of reviews have been written and published since its inception. Here we present an overview of the empirical papers published between 2017 and 2023 that address the unique effects of exercise, plasticity-stimulating activities, and the depriving effect of social isolation on brain plasticity and behavior.

The influence of adverse childhood experiences and depression on addiction severity among methamphetamine users: exploring the role of perseveration

Aims

This investigation aimed to clarify the intricate relationship among depression, cognitive function, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), and their combined influence on methamphetamine use disorder (MUD).

Methods

Utilizing a battery of psychological tests, this study ascertained the impact of ACEs on the condition of 76 people with MUD who meet the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) criteria, aged 42.17 on average. The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), Conners' Continuous Performance-II (CPT-II), the self-report Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS), and the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) were used for these evaluations. Individuals involved in the study were categorized into two discrete cohorts, mild (ME) and severe (SE), based on the extent of their ACEs exposure. This study employed the PROCESS regression, the independent t-test andχ2 tests for the analysis.

Results

The findings revealed notable discrepancies in the psychological consequences between the two groups with different degrees of ACEs; however, no substantial differences were observed in the demographic parameters. The SE group exhibited elevated BDI-II scores, more evident indications of MUD, and a higher degree of CPT-II cognitive perseveration. The PROCESS model revealed that cognitive perseveration moderated the impact of depression on ACEs and subjective MUD severity, explaining 20.2% of the variance. The ACEs and depression predicted 28.6% of the variance in MUD symptoms. However, no statistically significant differences were detected between the two groups regarding the parameters in the IGT-2 assessment.

Conclusions

These results indicate that the interaction between cognitive and depressive factors mediates the effect of ACEs on subjective MUD severity but not on MUD symptoms. The ACEs significant impact on mental health severity perception is explained by cognitive and depressive factors. This implies that MUD treatment and rehabilitation should address cognitive dysfunction and developmental trauma.

The Influence of Social and Developmental Factors on the Timing of Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis of Preschool-Aged Children: Evidence from a Specialized Chilean Center

We investigated the influence of developmental and social factors on the age of autism diagnosis (AoD) in a cohort of toddlers living in Chile. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 509 preschool children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder [M = 40.2 months (SD = 8.6), girls: 32%] in the neurodevelopmental unit of a university clinic in Santiago, Chile (2015-2023). Structural changes in the annual trend of AoD were tested. Generalized linear models (gamma distribution) with and without interaction terms were used for the multivariate analysis, adjusting for gender, residential area, year of diagnosis, developmental variables (language regression, delayed walking, and use of expressive verbal language), and primary caregiver age and education level (CEL). 95% confidence intervals of the unstandardized regression coefficients (B) were calculated using 1000 bootstrap resampling to estimate associations. AoD increased between 2021-2022 and decreased in 2023. Female gender (B = 2.72 [1.21-4.23]), no history of language regression (B = 3.97 [1.66-6.28]), and the presence of expressive verbal language at diagnosis (B = 1.57 [0.05-3.08]) were associated with higher AoD. Children whose caregivers had tertiary education were diagnosed earlier than those with ≤ 12 years of formal education. Although the influence of CEL increased with caregiver age, differences between CEL groups were significant only for caregivers aged ≥ 30 years. Improved education and early screening for clinical features of autism among healthcare professionals and the community, with a focus on young children without highly apparent developmental concerns and those from vulnerable social groups, are warranted.

Belief Updating, Childhood Maltreatment, and Paranoia in Schizophrenia-Spectrum Disorders

BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS

Exposure to childhood maltreatment-a risk factor for psychosis is associated with paranoia-may impact one's beliefs about the world and how beliefs are updated. We hypothesized that increased exposure to childhood maltreatment is related to volatility-related belief updating, specifically higher expectations of volatility, and that these relationships are strongest for threat-related maltreatment. Additionally, we tested whether belief updating mediates the relationship between maltreatment and paranoia.

STUDY DESIGN

Belief updating was measured in 75 patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders and 76 nonpsychiatric controls using a 3-option probabilistic reversal learning (3PRL) task. A Hierarchical Gaussian Filter (HGF) was used to estimate computational parameters of belief updating, including prior expectations of volatility (μ03). The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) was used to assess cumulative maltreatment, threat, and deprivation exposure. Paranoia was measured using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and the revised Green et al. Paranoid Thoughts Scale (R-GPTS).

RESULTS

Greater exposure to childhood maltreatment is associated with higher prior expectations of volatility in the whole sample and in individuals with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. This was specific to threat-related maltreatment, rather than deprivation, in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Paranoia was associated with both exposure to childhood maltreatment and volatility priors, but we did not observe a significant indirect effect of volatility priors on the relationship between maltreatment and paranoia.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests that individuals with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders who were exposed to threatening experiences during childhood expect their environment to be more volatile, potentially facilitating aberrant belief updating and conferring risk for paranoia.

Life stress influences the relationship between sex hormone fluctuation and affective symptoms in peripubertal female adolescents

Female adolescents have a greatly increased risk of depression starting at puberty, which continues throughout the reproductive lifespan. Sex hormone fluctuation has been highlighted as a key proximal precipitating factor in the development of mood disorders tied to reproductive events; however, hormone-induced affective state change is poorly understood in the pubertal transition. The present study investigated the impact of recent stressful life events on the relationship between sex hormone change and affective symptoms in peripubertal female participants. Thirty-five peripubertal participants (ages 11-14, premenarchal, or within 1 year of menarche) completed an assessment of stressful life events, and provided weekly salivary hormone collections [estrone, testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)] and mood assessments for 8 weeks. Linear mixed models tested whether stressful life events provided a context in which within-person changes in hormones predicted weekly affective symptoms. Results indicated that exposure to stressful life events proximal to the pubertal transition influenced the directional effects of hormone change on affective symptoms. Specifically, greater affective symptoms were associated with increases in hormones in a high stress context and decreases in hormones in a low stress context. These findings provide support for stress-related hormone sensitivity as a diathesis for precipitating affective symptoms in the presence of pronounced peripubertal hormone flux.

The longitudinal interplay between insecure attachment behaviors and psychosocial strengths among children in child welfare services

Children who have experienced maltreatment are more likely to have disrupted attachments, fewer psychosocial strengths, and poorer long-term psychosocial outcomes. However, few studies have examined the interplay between attachment security and psychosocial strengths among children involved in therapeutic services in the context of the child welfare system. The present longitudinal study examines the insecure attachment behaviors and psychosocial strengths of 555 children referred to the Therapeutic Family Care program (TFCP) in Cobourg, Ontario between 2000 and 2019. The children were assessed by their caregivers on a regular basis using the Assessment Checklist for Children (ACC) and the complementary strengths-focused ACC+ measure. Average age of children at baseline was 9.57 years (SD = 3.51) and 229 (41.26%) were female. We conducted growth curve and random intercepts cross-lagged panel models to test the longitudinal interplay between insecure attachment behaviors and strengths. Results suggest that females' attachment security improved, males' attachment security worsened, and both males and females developed strengths over time. Further, analyses revealed a directional effect, whereby fewer insecure attachment behaviors predicted more psychosocial strengths approximately 6 months later. Implications for attachment-oriented and strengths-based services in the context of child welfare are discussed.

Language processing following childhood poverty: Evidence for disrupted neural networks

Childhood poverty is related to deficits in multiple cognitive domains including adult language function. It is unknown if the brain basis of language is disrupted in adults with childhood poverty backgrounds, controlling for current functioning. Fifty-one adults (age 24) from an existing longitudinal study of childhood poverty, beginning at age 9, were examined on behavioral phonological awareness (LP) and completed an event-related fMRI speech/print processing LP task. Adults from childhood poverty backgrounds exhibited lower LP in adulthood. The middle-income group exhibited greater activation of the bilateral IFG and hippocampus during language processing. In psychophysiological interaction (PPI) analyses, the childhood poverty group exhibited greater coupling between ventral Broca's and the middle temporal gyrus (MTG) as well as coupling between Wernicke's region and bilateralization. Childhood poverty disrupts language processing neural networks in adulthood, after controlling for LP, suggesting that poverty in childhood influences the neurophysiological basis for language processing into adulthood.

Comparing the multivariate relationships of conceptual adversity models and structural brain development in adolescent girls: A registered report

Adverse experiences throughout development confer risk for a multitude of negative long-term outcomes, but the processes via which these experiences are neurobiologically embedded are still unclear. Adolescence provides an opportunity to understand how these experiences impact the brain's rapidly changing structure. Two models are central to current adversity conceptualizations: a cumulative risk model, where all types of experiences are combined to represent accumulating stress, and a dimensional model, where certain features of experience (e.g., threat or deprivation) exert unique neurophysiological influence. In this registered report, we extended upon previous research by using a form of representational similarity analysis to examine whether the dimensional and cumulative risk models of adversity predict cortical thinning in frontoparietal and frontotemporal networks and volumetric changes in subcortical regions throughout adolescence. Drawing from a longitudinal sample of 179 adolescent girls (ages 10-13 years at the first wave) from Lane County, Oregon, United States, and up to four waves of follow-up data, we found that operationalizing adversity by similarity in threat and deprivation provided better prediction of brain development than similarity in overall adversity. However, these dimensions do not exhibit unique associations with developmental changes in the hypothesized brain changes. These results underscore the significance of carefully defining adversity and considering its impact on the entire brain. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Brain age prediction and deviations from normative trajectories in the neonatal connectome

Structural and functional connectomes undergo rapid changes during the third trimester and the first month of postnatal life. Despite progress, our understanding of the developmental trajectories of the connectome in the perinatal period remains incomplete. Brain age prediction uses machine learning to estimate the brain's maturity relative to normative data. The difference between the individual's predicted and chronological age-or brain age gap (BAG)-represents the deviation from these normative trajectories. Here, we assess brain age prediction and BAGs using structural and functional connectomes for infants in the first month of life. We used resting-state fMRI and DTI data from 611 infants (174 preterm; 437 term) from the Developing Human Connectome Project (dHCP) and connectome-based predictive modeling to predict postmenstrual age (PMA). Structural and functional connectomes accurately predicted PMA for term and preterm infants. Predicted ages from each modality were correlated. At the network level, nearly all canonical brain networks-even putatively later developing ones-generated accurate PMA prediction. Additionally, BAGs were associated with perinatal exposures and toddler behavioral outcomes. Overall, our results underscore the importance of normative modeling and deviations from these models during the perinatal period.

Chronic pain as an emergent property of a complex system and the potential roles of psychedelic therapies

Despite research advances and urgent calls by national and global health organizations, clinical outcomes for millions of people suffering with chronic pain remain poor. We suggest bringing the lens of complexity science to this problem, conceptualizing chronic pain as an emergent property of a complex biopsychosocial system. We frame pain-related physiology, neuroscience, developmental psychology, learning, and epigenetics as components and mini-systems that interact together and with changing socioenvironmental conditions, as an overarching complex system that gives rise to the emergent phenomenon of chronic pain. We postulate that the behavior of complex systems may help to explain persistence of chronic pain despite current treatments. From this perspective, chronic pain may benefit from therapies that can be both disruptive and adaptive at higher orders within the complex system. We explore psychedelic-assisted therapies and how these may overlap with and complement mindfulness-based approaches to this end. Both mindfulness and psychedelic therapies have been shown to have transdiagnostic value, due in part to disruptive effects on rigid cognitive, emotional, and behavioral patterns as well their ability to promote neuroplasticity. Psychedelic therapies may hold unique promise for the management of chronic pain.

Early Infant Prefrontal Cortical Microstructure Predicts Present and Future Emotionality

BACKGROUND

High levels of infant negative emotionality (NE) and low positive emotionality (PE) predict future emotional and behavioral problems. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) supports emotional regulation, with each PFC subregion specializing in specific emotional processes. Neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging estimates microstructural integrity and myelination via the neurite density index (NDI) and dispersion via the orientation dispersion index (ODI), with potential to more accurately evaluate microstructural alterations in the developing brain. Yet, no study has used these indices to examine associations between PFC microstructure and concurrent or developing infant emotionality.

METHODS

We modeled PFC subregional NDI and ODI at 3 months with caregiver-reported infant NE and PE at 3 months (n = 61) and at 9 months (n = 50), using multivariable and subsequent bivariate regression models.

RESULTS

The most robust statistically significant findings were positive associations among 3-month rostral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) ODI and caudal ACC NDI and concurrent NE, a positive association between 3-month lateral orbitofrontal cortex ODI and prospective NE, and a negative association between 3-month dorsolateral PFC ODI and concurrent PE. Multivariate models also revealed that other PFC subregional microstructure measures, as well as infant and caregiver sociodemographic and clinical factors, predicted infant 3- and 9-month NE and PE.

CONCLUSIONS

Greater NDI and ODI, reflecting greater microstructural complexity, in PFC regions supporting salience perception (rostral ACC), decision making (lateral orbitofrontal cortex), action selection (caudal ACC), and attentional processes (dorsolateral PFC) might result in greater integration of these subregions with other neural networks and greater attention to salient negative external cues, thus higher NE and/or lower PE. These findings provide potential infant cortical markers of future psychopathology risk.

The impacts of early environmental adversity on cognitive functioning, body mass, and life-history behavioral profiles

Early adverse experiences or exposures have a profound impact on neurophysiological, cognitive, and somatic development. Evidence across disciplines uncovers adversity-induced alternations in cortical structures, cognitive functions, and related behavioral manifestations, as well as an energetic trade-off between the brain and body. Based on the life history (LH) framework, the present research aims to explore the adversity-adapted cognitive-behavioral mechanism and investigate the relation between cognitive functioning and somatic energy reserve (i.e., body mass index; BMI). A structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis was performed with longitudinal self-reported, anthropometric, and task-based data drawn from a cohort of 2,607 8- to 11-year-old youths and their primary caregivers recruited by the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCDSM) study. The results showed that early environmental adversity was positively associated with fast LH behavioral profiles and negatively with cognitive functioning. Moreover, cognitive functioning mediated the relationship between adversity and fast LH behavioral profiles. Additionally, we found that early environmental adversity positively predicted BMI, which was inversely correlated with cognitive functioning. These results revealed an adversity-adapted cognitive-behavioral mechanism and energy-allocation pathways, and add to the existing knowledge of LH trade-off and developmental plasticity.

Annual Research Review: Early intervention viewed through the lens of developmental neuroscience

The overarching goal of this paper is to examine the efficacy of early intervention when viewed through the lens of developmental neuroscience. We begin by briefly summarizing neural development from conception through the first few postnatal years. We emphasize the role of experience during the postnatal period, and consistent with decades of research on critical periods, we argue that experience can represent both a period of opportunity and a period of vulnerability. Because plasticity is at the heart of early intervention, we next turn our attention to the efficacy of early intervention drawing from two distinct literatures: early intervention services for children growing up in disadvantaged environments, and children at elevated likelihood of developing a neurodevelopmental delay or disorder. In the case of the former, we single out interventions that target caregiving and in the case of the latter, we highlight recent work on autism. A consistent theme throughout our review is a discussion of how early intervention is embedded in the developing brain. We conclude our article by discussing the implications our review has for policy, and we then offer recommendations for future research.

Place-Based Child Opportunity at Birth and Child Development from Infancy to Age 4

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to evaluate whether the children's neighborhood quality, as a measure of place-based social determinants of health, is associated with the odds of developmental delay and developmental performance up to the age of 4 years.

STUDY DESIGN

Mothers of 5702 children from the Upstate KIDS Study, a longitudinal population-based cohort of children born from 2008 through 2010, provided questionnaire data and a subset of 573 children participated in a clinic visit. The Child Opportunity Index 2.0 was linked to home census tract at birth. Probable developmental delays were assessed by the Ages and Stages Questionnaire up to 7 times between 4 and 36 months, and developmental performance was assessed via the Battelle Developmental Inventory at the age of 4 years.

RESULTS

In unadjusted models, higher neighborhood opportunity was protective against developmental delays and was associated with slightly higher development scores at age 4. After adjusting for family-level confounding variables, 10-point higher Child Opportunity Index (on a 100-point scale) remained associated with a lower odds of any developmental delay (OR = .966, 95% CI = .940-.992), and specifically delays in the personal-social domain (OR = .921, 95% CI = .886-.958), as well as better development performance in motor (B = 0.79, 95% CI = 0.11-1.48), personal-social (B = 0.64, 95% CI = 0.003-1.28), and adaptive (B = 0.69, 95% CI = 0.04-1.34) domains at age 4.

CONCLUSIONS

Community-level opportunities are associated with some aspects of child development prior to school entry. Pediatric providers may find it helpful to use neighborhood quality as an indicator to inform targeted developmental screening.

In-vivo whole-cortex marker of excitation-inhibition ratio indexes cortical maturation and cognitive ability in youth

A balanced excitation-inhibition ratio (E/I ratio) is critical for healthy brain function. Normative development of cortex-wide E/I ratio remains unknown. Here we non-invasively estimate a putative marker of whole-cortex E/I ratio by fitting a large-scale biophysically-plausible circuit model to resting-state functional MRI (fMRI) data. We first confirm that our model generates realistic brain dynamics in the Human Connectome Project. Next, we show that the estimated E/I ratio marker is sensitive to the GABA-agonist benzodiazepine alprazolam during fMRI. Alprazolam-induced E/I changes are spatially consistent with positron emission tomography measurement of benzodiazepine receptor density. We then investigate the relationship between the E/I ratio marker and neurodevelopment. We find that the E/I ratio marker declines heterogeneously across the cerebral cortex during youth, with the greatest reduction occurring in sensorimotor systems relative to association systems. Importantly, among children with the same chronological age, a lower E/I ratio marker (especially in association cortex) is linked to better cognitive performance. This result is replicated across North American (8.2 to 23.0 years old) and Asian (7.2 to 7.9 years old) cohorts, suggesting that a more mature E/I ratio indexes improved cognition during normative development. Overall, our findings open the door to studying how disrupted E/I trajectories may lead to cognitive dysfunction in psychopathology that emerges during youth.

A sex-specific pathway linking early life maltreatment, vagal activity, and depressive symptoms

Background: Experiences of early life maltreatment (ELM) are alarmingly common and represent a risk factor for the development of psychopathology, particularly depression. Research has focused on alterations in autonomic nervous system (ANS) functioning as a mediator of negative mental health outcomes associated with ELM. Early alterations in autonomic vagal activity (vmHRV) may moderate the relationship between ELM and depression, particularly when considering forms of emotional maltreatment. Recent evidence suggests that the relationships of both ELM and vmHRV with depression may be non-linear, particularly considering females.Objective: Building on and extending theoretical considerations and previous work, the present work aims to further the current understanding of the complex relationships between ELM exposure, vmHRV, and depression.Methods: This study uses an adaptive modelling approach, combining exploratory network-based analyses with linear and quadratic moderation analyses, drawing on a large sample of males and females across adolescence (total N = 213; outpatient at-risk sample and healthy controls) and adulthood (total N = 85; community-based convenience sample).Results: Exploratory network-based analyses reveal that exposure to emotional abuse is particularly central within a network of ELM subtypes, depressive symptoms, and concurrent vmHRV in both adolescents and adults. In adults, emotional neglect shows strong associations with both emotional abuse and vmHRV and is highly central as a network node, which is not observed in adolescents. Moderator analyses reveal significant interactions between emotional maltreatment and vmHRV predicting depressive symptoms in adult females. Significant quadratic relationships of emotional maltreatment and vmHRV with depression are observed in both adolescent and adult females.Conclusions: The present findings contribute to the understanding of the psychological and physiological mechanisms by which ELM acts as a risk factor for the development of depression. Ultimately, this will contribute to the development of targeted and effective intervention strategies to mitigate the detrimental effects of early adversity.

Parental communicative input as a protective factor in Bangladeshi families living in poverty: A multi-dimensional perspective

Studies from high-income populations have shown that stimulating, supportive communicative input from parents promote children's cognitive and language development. However, fewer studies have identified specific features of input supporting the healthy development of children growing up in low- or middle-income countries. The current study proposes and tests a multi-dimensional framework for understanding whether and how caregiver communicative input mediates the associations between socio-economic conditions and early development. We also examine how caregiver conceptual scaffolding and autonomy support uniquely and synergistically explain variation in child outcomes. Participants were 71 Bangladeshi families with five-year-olds who were exposed to a range of biological and psychosocial hazards from birth. Caregiver-child interactions during snack sharing and semi-structured play were coded for caregiver conceptual scaffolding, autonomy support, and child engagement. Findings indicate that the two dimensions of input were correlated, suggesting that caregivers who provided richer conceptual scaffolds were simultaneously more supportive of children's autonomy. Notably, conceptual scaffolding and autonomy support each mediated associations between maternal education and child verbal intelligence quotient (IQ) scores. Further, caregivers who supported greater autonomy in their children had children who participated in conversations more actively, and these children in turn had higher performance IQ scores. When considered simultaneously, conceptual scaffolding was associated with verbal IQ over and above autonomy support, whereas autonomy support related to child engagement, controlling for conceptual scaffolding. These findings shed new light on how environmental factors may support early development, contributing to the design of family-centered, culturally authentic interventions. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://youtu.be/9v_8sIv7ako RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Studies from high-income countries have identified factors mitigating the impacts of socio-economic risks on development. Such research is scarce in low- and middle-income countries. The present study conceptualized and evaluated caregiver communicative input in Bangladeshi families along two interrelated yet distinct dimensions: conceptual scaffolding and autonomy support. Conceptual scaffolding and autonomy support individually mediated associations between maternal education and child verbal IQ, shedding light on protective factors in families living in poverty. Parents providing richer conceptual scaffolds were simultaneously more supportive of children's autonomy. However, the two dimensions each related to cognition and language through unique pathways.

Life course socioeconomic status, chronic pain, and the mediating role of allostatic load: findings from the midlife in the United States

Introduction

Low socioeconomic status (SES) has been linked to chronic pain (CP); however, the mechanisms by which SES over the life course influences downstream CP outcomes remain unclear.

Methods

This study utilizes data from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) survey, a prospective sample of community-dwelling individuals (N=781), to investigate the chain of risk additive model of SES in relation to CP. Additionally, the study examines the mediating role of allostatic load (AL) in the relationship between life course SES and CP. Confirmatory factor analysis was employed to capture the multidimensionality of life course SES and path analysis was used to examine the direct and indirect effects on CP. AL was computed by quartile-based summation and by latent class analysis.

Results

Results indicated lower SES in MIDUS 2 was associated with greater high-interference CP odds in MIDUS 3 (OR=1.069, 95% CI=1.006-1.136, P < 0.05) and no association was found between distal SES and levels of CP interference. Similarly, no significant relationship was observed between SES and the number of CP locations. Additionally, no additive effects of SES were found, and AL did not present mediation effects on the association between life course SES and CP.

Discussion

The present study emphasizes the importance of directly proximal effects of SES on CP, underscoring the need for equitable distribution of health resources and the implementation of policies focused on diminishing socioeconomic inequalities. Further research is needed to examine alternative pathways by which proximal SES impact CP.

The different role of adversity before and after birth in adolescent depression

BACKGROUND

Early adversity is strongly linked to adolescent depression, but there is limited research on the impact of indirect exposure to adversity before birth and the distinct role of adversity before and after birth.

METHODS

A total of 1911 Chinese adolescents (48.8 % males; ages 11 to 19, Mean = 13.96) reported early adversities before and after birth, depression, negative self-cognition and perceived school climate. Structural equation model was used to test the association between early adversity before/after birth and adolescent depression, with negative self-cognition serving as a mediator and school climate as a moderator.

RESULTS

Adversity before birth was related to adolescent depression through the full mediating role of negative self-cognition. Furthermore, it was more associated with negative self-cognition in schools with a more favorable climate. Adversity after birth was related to adolescent depression through the partial mediating role of negative self-cognition, and school climate played a nonsignificant moderating role in the mediating path.

LIMITATIONS

Early adversity was measured through adolescent reports, possibly generating recall bias. The cross-sectional design should be taken into consideration when drawing conclusions about causality.

CONCLUSIONS

Adversities before and after birth are associated with adolescent depression in distinct ways. The more association between adversity before birth and negative self-cognition in a favorable school climate supports the "healthy context paradox." Interventions that target depression should focus on promoting a positive school climate and helping adolescents who have experienced early adversity bolster positive self-cognition.

Psychopathology as long-term sequelae of maltreatment and socioeconomic disadvantage: Neurocognitive development perspectives

Neuroscience research underscores the critical impact of adverse experiences on brain development. Yet, there is limited understanding of the specific pathways linking adverse experiences to accelerated or delayed brain development and their ultimate contributions to psychopathology. Here, we present new longitudinal data demonstrating that neurocognitive functioning during adolescence, as affected by adverse experiences, predicts psychopathology during young adulthood. The sample included 167 participants (52% male) assessed in adolescence and young adulthood. Adverse experiences were measured by early maltreatment experiences and low family socioeconomic status. Cognitive control was assessed by neural activation and behavioral performance during the Multi-Source Interference Task. Psychopathology was measured by self-reported internalizing and externalizing symptomatology. Results indicated that higher maltreatment predicted heightened frontoparietal activation during cognitive control, indicating delayed neurodevelopment, which, in turn predicted higher internalizing and externalizing symptomatology. Furthermore, higher maltreatment predicted a steeper decline in frontoparietal activation across adolescence, indicating neural plasticity in cognitive control-related brain development, which was associated with lower internalizing symptomatology. Our results elucidate the crucial role of neurocognitive development in the processes linking adverse experiences and psychopathology. Implications of the findings and directions for future research on the effects of adverse experiences on brain development are discussed.

Transformational narrative changes as a community-level approach to the prevention of adverse childhood experiences and substance use

There is increasing scientific evidence linking substance use, childhood adversity, and social determinants of health. However, little research has considered the evaluation of community-level strategies to reduce substance use by increasing awareness and implementation of evidence-based strategies for preventing adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). This article lays out the conceptual framework for a $2.9 million demonstration project designed to raise awareness of the impact of ACEs on substance use, including primary prevention strategies. Communities used transformational narrative change-with an emphasis on the voices of those most impacted by ACEs and substance use-to highlight the importance of addressing social determinants of health along with primary prevention strategies. The conceptual background highlighted in this article informed media, public health, and local efforts in the three accompanying articles and invited commentary. These findings may help inform future efforts to promote community-level strategies and strengthen the evidence-base for transformational narrative change efforts.

Prenatal influences on postnatal neuroplasticity: Integrating DOHaD and sensitive/critical period frameworks to understand biological embedding in early development

Early environments can have significant and lasting effects on brain, body, and behavior across the lifecourse. Here, we address current research efforts to understand how experiences impact neurodevelopment with a new perspective integrating two well-known conceptual frameworks - the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) and sensitive/critical period frameworks. Specifically, we consider how prenatal experiences characterized in the DOHaD model impact two key neurobiological mechanisms of sensitive/critical periods for adapting to and learning from the postnatal environment. We draw from both animal and human research to summarize the current state of knowledge on how particular prenatal substance exposures (psychoactive substances and heavy metals) and nutritional profiles (protein-energy malnutrition and iron deficiency) each differentially impact brain circuits' excitation/GABAergic inhibition balance and myelination. Finally, we highlight new research directions that emerge from this integrated framework, including testing how prenatal environments alter sensitive/critical period timing and learning and identifying potential promotional/buffering prenatal exposures to impact postnatal sensitive/critical periods. We hope this integrative framework considering prenatal influences on postnatal neuroplasticity will stimulate new research to understand how early environments have lasting consequences on our brains, behavior, and health.

'Baby Liberation' - Developing and implementing an individualised, developmentally-supportive care bundle to critically unwell infants in an Australian Paediatric Intensive Care Unit

BACKGROUND

Infants requiring high acuity care within a Paediatric Intensive Care Unit are at multifactorial risk of neurological injury to the immature brain, resulting in long-term developmental difficulties. In 2020, Queensland Children's Hospital implemented an individualised family-centred developmental care program, 'Baby Liberation', to address an identified service gap for critically unwell infants, aimed at optimising early neuroprotective strategies and minimising risk of suboptimal developmental outcomes.

AIM

To implement Baby Liberation for infants admitted to a quaternary paediatric intensive care referral centre. Secondary aims were to describe environmental changes, enablers and limitations related to implementation.

STUDY DESIGN

A single-centre, prospective implementation pilot study investigated the feasibility of implementing Baby Liberation. Subjects included infants less than six months of age admitted to Queensland Children's Hospital Paediatric Intensive Care Unit.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Primary measures comprised data collected during the implementation period, including number of eligible patients and number of developmental care plans provided. Environmental audit data were collected pre and post implementation to inform secondary outcomes.

RESULTS

Baby Liberation was feasibly implemented into the Queensland Children's Hospital Paediatric Intensive Care Unit. During implementation, 181 individualised care plans were provided to 313 eligible infants (57.8 %). Environmental audits showed improvements in all areas of developmental care, with greatest improvements noted in pain and stress management (+95 %) and staff support and development (+83.3 %).

CONCLUSION

Implementation of Baby Liberation was feasible within a large quaternary paediatric intensive care unit and has potential to be expanded into other clinical areas providing acute infant care.

Neurodevelopment in the Congenital Heart Disease Population as Framed by the Life Course Health Development Framework

BACKGROUND

Adverse neurodevelopment is a common comorbidity associated with congenital heart disease (CHD). The consequences of adverse neurodevelopment are seen across the life course. The cause of adverse neurodevelopment is multifactorial, and use of a life course perspective can assist with understanding and enhancing neurodevelopment in individuals with CHD.

PURPOSE

The purposes of this article are to (1) apply the Life Course Health Development framework to neurodevelopment in the population with CHD and (2) discuss how exposure to the pediatric cardiac intensive care unit (PCICU) environment during infancy is a point of intervention for improving neurodevelopmental outcomes.

CONCLUSION

Individuals with CHD are at an increased risk for adverse neurodevelopment across the life course. The PCICU environment is a point of intervention for improving neurodevelopmental outcomes. Stress can lead to changes in brain structure and function that are associated with negative outcomes in terms of outward behavioral and functional capacity, and the PCICU environment is a source of stressful stimuli. Infancy is a period of rapid brain growth, and the brain is more susceptible to stress during this period of the life course, putting infants receiving care in the PCICU at an increased risk of adverse neurodevelopment.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Interventions to support optimal neurodevelopment should focus on the PCICU environment during infancy. Developmentally supportive care models should be explored as a means of modifying the PCICU environment. In addition, more research is needed on the relationship between the PCICU and neurodevelopment. The conceptual model introduced can serve as a starting point for this research.

Lifestyle Factors Counteract the Neurodevelopmental Impact of Genetic Risk for Accelerated Brain Aging in Adolescence

BACKGROUND

The transition from childhood to adolescence is characterized by enhanced neural plasticity and a consequent susceptibility to both beneficial and adverse aspects of one's milieu.

METHODS

To understand the implications of the interplay between protective and risk-enhancing factors, we analyzed longitudinal data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (n = 834; 394 female). We probed the maturational correlates of positive lifestyle variables (friendships, parental warmth, school engagement, physical exercise, healthy nutrition) and genetic vulnerability to neuropsychiatric disorders (major depressive disorder, Alzheimer's disease, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia) and sought to further elucidate their implications for psychological well-being.

RESULTS

Genetic risk factors and lifestyle buffers showed divergent relationships with later attentional and interpersonal problems. These effects were mediated by distinguishable functional neurodevelopmental deviations spanning the limbic, default mode, visual, and control systems. More specifically, greater genetic vulnerability was associated with alterations in the normative maturation of areas rich in dopamine (D2), glutamate, and serotonin receptors and of areas with stronger expression of astrocytic and microglial genes, a molecular signature implicated in the brain disorders discussed here. Greater availability of lifestyle buffers predicted deviations in the normative functional development of higher density GABAergic (gamma-aminobutyric acidergic) receptor regions. The two profiles of neurodevelopmental alterations showed complementary roles in protection against psychopathology, which varied with environmental stress levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results underscore the importance of educational involvement and healthy nutrition in attenuating the neurodevelopmental sequelae of genetic risk factors. They also underscore the importance of characterizing early-life biomarkers associated with adult-onset pathologies.

Prenatal and childhood lead exposure is prospectively associated with biological markers of aging in adolescence

Few studies have related early life lead exposure to adolescent biological aging, a period characterized by marked increases in maturational tempo. We examined associations between prenatal and childhood lead exposure and adolescent biological age (mean 14.5 years) utilizing multiple epigenetic clocks including: intrinsic (IEAA), extrinsic (EEAA), Horvath, Hannum, PhenoAge, GrimAge, Skin-Blood, Wu, PedBE, as well as DNA methylation derived telomere length (DNAmTL). Epigenetic clocks and DNAmTL were calculated via adolescent blood DNA methylation measured by Infinium MethylationEPIC BeadChips. We constructed general linear models (GLMs) with individual lead measures predicting biological age. We additionally examined sex-stratified models and lead by sex interactions, adjusting for adolescent age and lead levels, maternal smoking and education, and proportion of cell types. We also estimated effects of lead exposure on biological age using generalized estimating equations (GEE). First trimester blood lead was positively associated with a 0.14 increase in EEAA age in the GLMs though not the GEE models (95%CI 0.03, 0.25). First and 2nd trimester blood lead levels were associated with a 0.02 year increase in PedBE age in GLM and GEE models (1st trimester, 95%CI 0.004, 0.03; 2nd trimester, 95%CI 0.01, 0.03). Third trimester and 24 month blood lead levels were associated with a -0.06 and -0.05 decrease in Skin-Blood age, respectively, in GLM models. Additionally, 3rd trimester blood lead levels were associated with a 0.08 year decrease in Hannum age in GLM and GEE models (95%CI -0.15, -0.01). There were multiple significant results in sex-stratified models and significant lead by sex interactions, where males experienced accelerated biological age, compared to females who saw a decelerated biological age, with respect to IEAA, EEAA, Horvath, Hannum, and PedBE clocks. Further research is needed to understand sex-specific relationships between lead exposure and measures of biological aging in adolescence and the trajectory of biological aging into young adulthood.

Impact of altered environment and early postnatal methamphetamine exposure on serotonin levels in the rat hippocampus during adolescence

BACKGROUND

Methamphetamine (MA) is a highly abused psychostimulant across all age groups including pregnant women. Because developing brain is vulnerable by the action of drugs, or other noxious stimuli, the aim of our study was to examine the effect of early postnatal administration of MA alone or in combination with enriched environment (EE) and/or stress of separate housing, on the levels of serotonin (5HT) in the hippocampus of male rat pups at three stages of adolescence (postnatal day (PND) 28, 35 and 45). MA (5 mg/kg/ml) was administered subcutaneously (sc) to pups (direct administration), or via mothers' milk between PND1 and PND12 (indirect administration). Controls were exposed saline (SA). Pups were exposed to EE and/or to separation from the weaning till the end of the experiment.

RESULTS

On PND 28, in sc-treated series, EE significantly increased the muted 5HT in SA pups after separation and restored the pronounced inhibition of 5HT by MA. No beneficial effect of EE was present in pups exposed to combination of MA and separation. 5HT development declined over time; EE, MA and separation had different effects on 5HT relative to adolescence stage.

CONCLUSIONS

Present study shows that MA along with environment or housing affect 5HT levels, depending on both the age and the method of application (direct or indirect). These findings extend the knowledge on the effects of MA alone and in combination with different housing conditions on the developing brain and highlight the increased sensitivity to MA during the first few months after birth.

Young children's development after forced displacement: a systematic review

OBJECTIVES

To examine the impact of displacement experiences on 0- to 6-year-old children's social-emotional and cognitive development, as well as influencing factors on reported outcomes.

STUDY DESIGN

We systematically searched MEDline, Psyndex, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, Elsevier, TandF, Oxford Journal of Refugee Studies, Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, and Canada's Journal on Refugees for existing literature regarding social-emotional and cognitive outcomes in children directly exposed to forced displacement due to political violence. Results were synthesized in the discussion and displayed using harvest plots.

RESULTS

Our search generated 9,791 articles of which 32 were selected for review and evaluation according to NICE criteria. Included studies provided results for 6,878 forcibly displaced children. Measured outcomes were diverse and included areas such as peer relations, prosocial behavior, family functioning, play, intelligence, learning performance, and language development. Repeated exposure to adverse experiences, separation from parents, parental distress, as well as duration and quality of resettlement in the host country were reported as influencing factors in the reviewed studies.

CONCLUSION

As protective factors like secure and stable living conditions help to promote children's development, we call for policies that enhance participation in the welcoming society for refugee families. Early integration with low-threshold access to health and educational facilities can help to mitigate the wide-ranging negative consequences of forced displacement on young children's development.

Adverse Childhood Experiences Are Associated With Personality Disorder: A Prospective, Longitudinal Study

There is a lack of studies that have prospectively examined adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) in association with a personality disorder (PD). Data from a sample of 8,199 adolescents first assessed for ACEs were linked with subsequent data from the Norwegian Patient Register in order to obtain diagnoses of a PD in adulthood (after a 14-year follow-up). We used logistic regression analysis. Any type of ACE gave a 3.8-fold higher risk of developing a PD. Abuse, more specifically emotional abuse, came out as one of the strongest predictors. Of the adolescents who developed a PD, approximately 90% had a history of ACE. The results of this study support the importance of assessing ACEs, such as abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction, in the diagnostic procedure and treatment for PD.

Current psychopathology models emphasize very early intersubjectivity-based interventions in children to prevent later mental disorders

Current psychopathology models have evolved toward dimensional models, in which symptoms and diseases are at the extremes of dimensions. Despite these new dimensional proposals, classifications and third-person approach have shown limitations. Their extraordinary evolution nevertheless underlines the contributions of developmental and psychodynamic frameworks. Developmental contributions have made it possible to evolve from disorders centered on a first-person perspective. Complementarily to the first-person/third-person perspectives, we advocate a second-person perspective, based on intersubjectivity. This perspective reverses the intuitive trend to focus our interventions on the most specific symptoms and syndromes, and advocates instead interventions on a "p" general factor that are both generalized and highly targeted. The implications are (1) to intervene as early as possible, (2) to base the definition of our therapeutic targets on an intersubjective perspective, (3) to identify and enhance children's and parents' strengths. These empirically informed directions are not in the current mainstream of psychopathology frameworks, and need to be developed.