Enteric fever in Barcelona: Changing patterns of importation and antibiotic resistance

British Infection Association Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Enteric Fever in England

Enteric fever (EF) is an infection caused by the bacteria called Salmonella Typhi or Paratyphi. Infection is acquired through swallowing contaminated food or water. Most EF in England occurs in people returning from South Asia and other places where EF is common; catching EF in England is rare. The main symptom is fever, but stomach pain, diarrhoea, muscle aches, rash and other symptoms may occur. EF is diagnosed by culturing the bacteria from blood and/or stool in a microbiology laboratory. EF usually responds well to antibiotic treatment. Depending on how unwell the individual is, antibiotics may be administered by mouth or by injection. Over the past several years, there has been an overall increase in resistance to antibiotics used to treat enteric fever, in all endemic areas. Additionally, since 2016, there has been an ongoing outbreak of drug-resistant EF in Pakistan. This infection is called extensively drug-resistant, or XDR, EF and only responds to a limited number of antibiotics. Occasionally individuals develop complications of EF including confusion, bleeding, a hole in the gut or an infection of the bones or elsewhere. Some people may continue to carry the bacteria in their stool for a longtime following treatment for the initial illness. These people may need treatment with a longer course of antibiotics to eradicate infection. Travellers can reduce their risk of acquiring EF by following safe food and water practices and by receiving the vaccine at least a few weeks before travel. These guidelines aim to help doctors do the correct tests and treat patients for enteric fever in England but may also be useful to doctors and public health professionals in other similar countries.

Exploiting the glycan receptor-binding site of PltB subunit in salmonella typhi toxin for novel inhibitors: An in-silico approach

Salmonella typhi (S. typhi), a gram-negative bacterium responsible for gastroenteritis - typhoid - has continually evolved into drug-resistant strains with the most recent being the haplotype H58 strain. The haplotype H58 strain has spread across the globe causing outbreaks in countries such as Pakistan, Zimbabwe, and several underdeveloped regions located in parts of Asia, Central and Southern Africa. Treatment by conventional antibiotics is gradually failing as recorded in the affected countries, including Nigeria and Barcelona - Spain. Therefore, the research presented herein aims to identify novel compounds targeting the typhoid toxin of S. typhi which is responsible for several virulence factors associated with typhoid. In-silico methods that include virtual screening, molecular dynamics (MD) and computation of binding free energies were utilized. Our research identified furan derivatives as top-scoring lead compounds from a database of more than 1,5 million compounds curated from the ZINC20 database. Post docking analysis and trajectory analysis post-MD simulations showed that π - π interactions are vital to holding the ligand within the receptor pocket whereas hydrophobic and Van der Waals interactions are crucial for the overall bonding. Through docking, MD simulations and free energy computations, we hypothesize that ZINC000114543311, ZINC000794380763 and ZINC000158992484 (docking scores of -9.06, -8.20 and -8.12 in conjunction with ΔG values of -64.691, -63.670 and -59.024 kcal/mol, respectively) bear a great potential to pave the way to fighting antibiotic resistance for typhoid in both humans and animals. The compounds presented here can also be used as lead materials for designing other compounds targeting the Salmonella typhi toxin.

Conduite à tenir devant un enfant fébrile au retour de voyage☆

Les pathologies le plus fréquentes au retour de voyage à l’étranger sont les infections gastro-intestinales, les maladies fébriles et les problèmes dermatologiques. L’évaluation d’un enfant fébrile de retour de voyage est clinique : vérification des antécédents et des vaccinations, recherche d’autres cas au contact, signes fonctionnels et physiques, caractéristiques du voyage. Un bilan paraclinique de débrouillage complète souvent l’évaluation pour une orientation syndromique. Si les causes de fièvre sont surtout cosmopolites, la gravité des pathologies exotiques doit les faire rechercher en priorité. Le paludisme doit être évoqué devant toute fièvre en provenance d’Afrique subsaharienne. Le diagnostic repose sur l’association d’un frottis sanguin et d’un test sensible (goutte épaisse, polymerase chain reaction [PCR]) ou d’un test de diagnostic rapide (pour Plasmodium [P ]. falciparum ). Les critères clinicobiologiques de gravité sont essentiels pour orienter et traiter le patient. En cas d’accès non compliqué à P. falciparum , le traitement repose sur une thérapie combinée à base d’artémisinine (ACT), artéméther-luméfantrine ou arténimol-pipéraquine. Les accès graves sont traités par l’artésunate intraveineux, puis un ACT oral. Dengue, chikungunya et infection à virus Zika ont des caractéristiques cliniques communes (association fièvre-éruption-arthralgies, traitement symptomatique). En cas de dengue, il faut surveiller l’apparition de signes d’alerte qui pourraient faire craindre une évolution péjorative. Le chikungunya est grave en cas de transmission per partum, avec un risque d’encéphalite néonatale. Chez l’enfant, le Zika est a- ou peu symptomatique. Mais en cas d’infection pendant une grossesse, le risque est celui d’une embryofœtopathie. Le diagnostic de ces arboviroses repose sur la PCR à la phase aiguë et la sérologie secondairement. La symptomatologie de la typhoïde est peu spécifique, justifiant la pratique d’hémocultures systématiques devant une fièvre du retour. Son traitement repose sur les céphalosporines de troisième génération ou la ciprofloxacine, mais les résistances augmentent. Au total, la diversité des étiologies d’une fièvre de retour et la gravité potentielle des infections importées imposent une réflexion sur le parcours de soins de ces patients, en particulier vis-à-vis du risque de fièvre hémorragique.

Travel-Related Typhoid Fever: Narrative Review of the Scientific Literature

Enteric fever is a foodborne infectious disease caused by Salmonella enterica serotypes Typhi and Paratyphi A, B and C. The high incidence in low income countries can increase the risk of disease in travelers coming from high income countries. Pre-travel health advice on hygiene and sanitation practices and vaccines can significantly reduce the risk of acquiring infections. Although the majority of the cases are self-limiting, life-threatening complications can occur. Delayed diagnosis and cases of infections caused by multi-drug resistant strains can complicate the clinical management and affect the prognosis. More international efforts are needed to reduce the burden of disease in low income countries, indirectly reducing the risk of travelers in endemic settings. Surveillance activities can help monitor the epidemiology of cases caused by drug-susceptible and resistant strains.

Conducta práctica ante un niño febril al regresar de un viaje

Las enfermedades más frecuentes al regresar de un viaje al extranjero son las infecciones gastrointestinales, las enfermedades febriles y los problemas dermatológicos. La evaluación de un niño febril al regreso de un viaje es clínica: verificación de los antecedentes y las vacunaciones, búsqueda de otros casos en contacto, signos funcionales y físicos, y características del viaje. Unas pruebas complementarias de rutina completan a menudo la evaluación para una orientación sindrómica. Si bien las causas de fiebre son, sobre todo, cosmopolitas, la gravedad de la enfermedad exótica obliga a buscarlas prioritariamente. El paludismo debe sospecharse ante una fiebre procedente de África subsahariana. El diagnóstico se basa en la asociación de un frotis sanguíneo y una prueba sensible (gota gruesa, reacción en cadena de la polimerasa [PCR]) o una prueba de diagnóstico rápido (para Plasmodium falciparum ). Los criterios clínico-biológicos de gravedad son esenciales para orientar y tratar al paciente. En caso de acceso no complicado por P. falciparum, el tratamiento se basa en un tratamiento combinado a base de artemisinina (ACT), arteméter-lumefantrina o artenimol-piperaquina. Los accesos graves se tratan con artesunato intravenoso, seguido de ACT oral. Dengue, chikungunya e infección por virus Zika tienen características clínicas comunes (fiebre-erupción-artralgias, tratamiento sintomático). En caso de dengue, conviene controlar la aparición de signos de alerta, que podrían hacer temer una evolución negativa. El chikungunya es grave en caso de transmisión en el parto, con un riesgo de encefalitis neonatal. En el niño, el Zika es asintomático o poco sintomático. Pero, en caso de infección durante el embarazo, el riesgo es el de una embriofetopatía. El diagnóstico de estas arbovirosis se basa en la PCR en la fase aguda y en la serología secundariamente. La sintomatología de la fiebre tifoidea es poco específica, lo cual justifica la práctica de hemocultivos sistemáticos ante una fiebre tras un viaje. Su tratamiento se basa en las cefalosporinas de tercera generación o el ciprofloxacino, pero las resistencias aumentan. En suma, la diversidad de las etiologías de una fiebre al regreso de un viaje y la potencial gravedad de las infecciones importadas imponen una reflexión sobre el proceso de tratamiento de estos pacientes, en especial en lo referente al riesgo de fiebre hemorrágica.

Microbiological features of indigenous typhoid cases in Taiwan and relatedness to imported cases, 2001-2014: A cross-sectional analysis

BACKGROUND

Typhoid fever was rare in Taiwan but approximately two-thirds of the cases were indigenous. The transmission source of the indigenous cases and the relatedness to the imported cases remained unknown.

METHODS

Patients with any site culture positive for Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi were identified in a teaching hospital during 2001-2014. The isolates were determined for antibiotic susceptibilities, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) types and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) types.

RESULTS

A total of 64 typhoid episodes were identified in 63 patients. Seventeen episodes (26.6%) were imported and a majority (10, 58.8%) of them were from Indonesia. The clinical manifestations, outcomes of patients and antibiograms of isolates were similar between indigenous and imported cases. 63.3% of the isolates were ciprofloxacin-resistant. The distributions of PFGE and SNP types did not differ significantly between indigenous and imported isolates, either (P = 0.191 and 0.124, respectively). Identical PFGE pattern could be identified in indigenous isolates appearing at certain time frames, indicating outbreaks due to local transmission of certain Typhi strains.

CONCLUSIONS

The imported cases of typhoid fever from Southeast Asia were the major sources of indigenous S. Typhi infections in Taiwan. Small-scale outbreaks occurred due to local transmission of the strains after their importation.

Travel and the Spread of Drug-Resistant Bacteria

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The rise in antimicrobial resistance is an urgent public health threat which, in the absence of intervention, may result in a post-antibiotic era limiting the effectiveness of antibiotics to treat both common and serious infections. Globalization and human migration have profoundly contributed to the spread of drug-resistant bacteria. In this review, we summarize the recent literature on the importance of travelers in the spread of drug-resistant bacterial organisms. Our goal was to describe the importance of travel on a variety of clinically relevant drug-resistant bacterial organisms including extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae, carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella species, as well as other enteric infections.

RECENT FINDINGS

Travelers from high income countries, visiting low and middle income countries, frequently acquire drug-resistant bacteria, particularly extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae. The highest risk is associated with travel to the Indian subcontinent. Multidrug-resistant enteric infections in travelers from Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., and Shigella spp. are increasing. Refugees, pilgrimages, and medical tourists are associated with considerable risk of multiple forms of drug resistance. This review highlights the importance of antimicrobial stewardship, infection control, and surveillance; particularly in low and middle income countries. International leadership with global coordination is vital in the battle against antimicrobial resistance.