Neurotoxicity assessment of oleic acid-coated iron oxide nanoparticles in SH-SY5Y cells

Nanoparticles in drinking water: Assessing health risks and regulatory challenges

Nanoparticles (NPs) pose a significant concern in drinking water due to their potential health risks and environmental impact. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the current understanding of NP sources and contamination in drinking water, focusing on health concerns, mitigation strategies, regulatory frameworks, and future perspectives. This review highlights the importance of nano-specific pathways, fate processes, health risks & toxicity, and the need for realistic toxicity assessments. Different NPs like titanium dioxide, silver, nanoplastics, nanoscale liquid crystal monomers, copper oxide, and others pose potential health risks through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal exposure, impacting organs and potentially leading to oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, DNA damage, cytotoxicity, disrupt intracellular energetic mechanisms, reactive oxygen species generation, respiratory and immune toxicity, and genotoxicity in humans. Utilizing case studies and literature reviews, we investigate the health risks associated with NPs in freshwater environments, emphasizing their relevance to drinking water quality. Various mitigation and treatment strategies, including filtration systems (e.g., reverse osmosis, and ultra/nano-filtration), adsorption processes, coagulation/flocculation, electrocoagulation, advanced oxidation processes, membrane distillation, and ultraviolet treatment, all of which demonstrate high removal efficiencies for NPs from drinking water. Regulatory frameworks and challenges for the production, applications, and disposal of NPs at both national and international levels are discussed, emphasizing the need for tailored regulations to address NP contamination and standardize safety testing and risk assessment practices. Looking ahead, this review underscores the necessity of advancing detection methods and nanomaterial-based treatment technologies while stressing the pivotal role of public awareness and tailored regulatory guidelines in upholding drinking water quality standards. This review emphasizes the urgency of addressing NP contamination in drinking water and provides insights into potential solutions and future research directions. Lastly, this review worth concluded with future recommendations on advanced analytical techniques and sensitive sensors for NP detection for safeguarding public health and policy implementations.

Metal Nanoparticles in Alzheimer's Disease

Nanotechnology has emerged in different fields of biomedical application, including lifestyle diseases like diabetes, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease, neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease, and different types of cancers. Metal nanoparticles are one of the most used drug delivery systems due to the benefits of their enhanced physicochemical properties as compared to bulk metals. Neurodegenerative diseases are the second most cause affecting mortality worldwide after cancer. Hence, they require the most specific and targeted drug delivery systems for maximum therapeutic benefits. Metal nanoparticles are the preferred drug delivery system, possessing greater blood-brain barrier permeability, biocompatibility, and enhanced bioavailability. But some metal nanoparticles exhibit neurotoxic activity owing to their shape, size, surface charge, or surface modification. This review article has discussed the pathophysiology of AD. The neuroprotective mechanism of gold, silver, selenium, ruthenium, cerium oxide, zinc oxide, and iron oxide nanoparticles are discussed. Again, the neurotoxic mechanisms of gold, iron oxide, titanium dioxide, and cobalt oxide are also included. The neuroprotective and neurotoxic effects of nanoparticles targeted for treating AD are discussed elaborately. The review also focusses on the biocompatibility of metal nanoparticles for targeting the brain in treating AD. The clinical trials and the requirement to develop new drug delivery systems are critically analyzed. This review can show a path for the researchers involved in the brain-targeted drug delivery for AD.

Nanoparticles-induced potential toxicity on human health: Applications, toxicity mechanisms, and evaluation models

Nanoparticles (NPs) have become one of the most popular objects of scientific study during the past decades. However, despite wealth of study reports, still there is a gap, particularly in health toxicology studies, underlying mechanisms, and related evaluation models to deeply understanding the NPs risk effects. In this review, we first present a comprehensive landscape of the applications of NPs on health, especially addressing the role of NPs in medical diagnosis, therapy. Then, the toxicity of NPs on health systems is introduced. We describe in detail the effects of NPs on various systems, including respiratory, nervous, endocrine, immune, and reproductive systems, and the carcinogenicity of NPs. Furthermore, we unravels the underlying mechanisms of NPs including ROS accumulation, mitochondrial damage, inflammatory reaction, apoptosis, DNA damage, cell cycle, and epigenetic regulation. In addition, the classical study models such as cell lines and mice and the emerging models such as 3D organoids used for evaluating the toxicity or scientific study are both introduced. Overall, this review presents a critical summary and evaluation of the state of understanding of NPs, giving readers more better understanding of the NPs toxicology to remedy key gaps in knowledge and techniques.

Agglomerated serum albumin adsorbed protocatechuic acid coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles as a theranostic agent

Iron oxide nanoparticles have been one of the most widely used nanomaterials in biomedical applications. However, the incomplete understanding of the toxicity mechanisms limits their use in diagnosis and treatment processes. Many parameters are associated with their toxicity such as size, surface modification, solubility, concentration and immunogenicity. Further research needs to be done to address toxicity-related concerns and to increase its effectiveness in various applications. Herein, colloidally stable nanoparticles were prepared by coating magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONPs) with protocatechuic acid (PCA) which served as a stabilizer and a linkage for a further functional layer. A new perfusion agent with magnetic imaging capability was produced by the adsorption of biocompatible passivating agent macro-aggregated albumin (MAA) on the PCA-coated MIONPs. PCA-coated MIONPs were investigated using infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis and dynamic light scattering while adsorption of MAA was analysed by transmission electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and x-ray diffraction methods. Magnetic measurements of samples indicated that all samples showed superparamagnetic behaviour. Cytotoxicity results revealed that the adsorption of MAA onto PCA-coated MIONPs provided an advantage by diminishing their toxicity against the L929 mouse fibroblast cell line compared to bare Fe₃O₄.

Magnetic Hyperthermia Nanoarchitectonics via Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Stabilised by Oleic Acid: Anti-Tumour Efficiency and Safety Evaluation in Animals with Transplanted Carcinoma

In this study, we developed iron oxide nanoparticles stabilised with oleic acid/sodium oleate that could exert therapeutic effects for curing tumours via magnetic hyperthermia. A suspension of iron oxide nanoparticles was produced and characterised. The toxicity of the synthesised composition was examined in vivo and found to be negligible. Histological examination showed a low local irritant effect and no effect on the morphology of the internal organs. The efficiency of magnetic hyperthermia for the treatment of transplanted Walker 256 carcinoma was evaluated. The tumour was infiltrated with the synthesised particles and then treated with an alternating magnetic field. The survival rate was 85% in the studied therapy group of seven animals, while in the control group (without treatment), all animals died. The physicochemical and pharmaceutical properties of the synthesised fluid and the therapeutic results, as seen in the in vivo experiments, provide insights into therapeutic hyperthermia using injected magnetite nanoparticles.

Suitability of the In Vitro Cytokinesis-Block Micronucleus Test for Genotoxicity Assessment of TiO2 Nanoparticles on SH-SY5Y Cells

Standard toxicity tests might not be fully adequate for evaluating nanomaterials since their unique features are also responsible for unexpected interactions. The in vitro cytokinesis-block micronucleus (CBMN) test is recommended for genotoxicity testing, but cytochalasin-B (Cyt-B) may interfere with nanoparticles (NP), leading to inaccurate results. Our objective was to determine whether Cyt-B could interfere with MN induction by TiO₂ NP in human SH-SY5Y cells, as assessed by CBMN test. Cells were treated for 6 or 24 h, according to three treatment options: co-treatment with Cyt-B, post-treatment, and delayed co-treatment. Influence of Cyt-B on TiO₂ NP cellular uptake and MN induction as evaluated by flow cytometry (FCMN) were also assessed. TiO₂ NP were significantly internalized by cells, both in the absence and presence of Cyt-B, indicating that this chemical does not interfere with NP uptake. Dose-dependent increases in MN rates were observed in CBMN test after co-treatment. However, FCMN assay only showed a positive response when Cyt-B was added simultaneously with TiO₂ NP, suggesting that Cyt-B might alter CBMN assay results. No differences were observed in the comparisons between the treatment options assessed, suggesting they are not adequate alternatives to avoid Cyt-B interference in the specific conditions tested.

Salivary Leucocytes as In Vitro Model to Evaluate Nanoparticle-Induced DNA Damage

Metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) have a wide variety of applications in many consumer products and biomedical practices. As a result, human exposure to these nanomaterials is highly frequent, becoming an issue of concern to public health. Recently, human salivary leucocytes have been proposed as an adequate non-invasive alternative to peripheral blood leucocytes to evaluate genotoxicity in vitro. The present study focused on proving the suitability of salivary leucocytes as a biomatrix in the comet assay for in vitro nanogenotoxicity studies, by testing some of the metal oxide NPs most frequently present in consumer products, namely, titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and cerium dioxide (CeO2) NPs. Primary and oxidative DNA damage were evaluated by alkaline and hOGG1-modified comet assay, respectively. Any possible interference of the NPs with the methodological procedure or the hOGG1 activity was addressed before performing genotoxicity evaluation. Results obtained showed an increase of both primary and oxidative damage after NPs treatments. These data support the use of salivary leucocytes as a proper and sensitive biological sample for in vitro nanogenotoxicity studies, and contribute to increase the knowledge on the impact of metal oxide NPs on human health, reinforcing the need for a specific regulation of the nanomaterials use.

Maternal exposure to iron oxide nanoparticles is associated with ferroptosis in the brain: A chicken embryo model analysis

Ferroptosis is a form of cell death associated with iron-dependent lipid peroxidation. We used a chicken embryo model to investigate if ferroptosis was implicated in the molecular mechanism underlying the potential effects of maternal exposure to iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) on the developing brain. One hundred and eighty fertilized eggs were randomly divided into six groups (30 eggs/group; 10 eggs/replicate). Groups I and II received maghemite (γ-Fe₂ O₃ ) NPs (MGMNPs), while groups III and IV received magnetite (Fe₃ O₄ ) NPs (MGTNPs). Both MGMNP and MGTNP were administrated at the concentrations of 100 and 250 ppm. One group (placebo) received saline, and the other remained untreated (control). The compounds were given by in ovo method (0.3 ml/egg) only once on the first day of the embryonic period. Samples from cerebral tissue were collected on day 20 for histopathological, biochemical and gene expression analyses. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and malondialdehyde (MDA) increased; glutathione peroxidase (GPX) expression and activity decreased in IONPs-treated groups. Ferroptotic cells appeared in the cerebral tissue following exposure to the low dose of MGMNP and MGTNP. Oxidative stress and ferroptotic cells were more evident for MGMNP compared to MGTNP. The low dose of MGMNP and MGTNP induced more severe oxidative stress in the cerebral tissue. According to the results, maternal exposure to IONPs is associated with ferroptosis in the brain. This work could encourage future researches to investigate inhibitors of ferroptosis as a protective strategy against iron-induced cell injuries and cell death.

Organ-specific toxicity of magnetic iron oxide-based nanoparticles

The unique properties of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles determined their widespread use in medical applications, the food industry, textile industry, which in turn led to environmental pollution. These factors determine the long-term nature of the effect of iron oxide nanoparticles on the body. However, studies in the field of chronic nanotoxicology of magnetic iron particles are insufficient and scattered. Studies show that toxicity may be increased depending on oral and inhalation routes of administration rather than injection. The sensory nerve pathway can produce a number of specific effects not seen with other routes of administration. Organ systems showing potential toxic effects when injected with iron oxide nanoparticles include the nervous system, heart and lungs, the thyroid gland, and organs of the mononuclear phagocytic system (MPS). A special place is occupied by the reproductive system and the effect of nanoparticles on the health of the first and second generations of individuals exposed to the toxic effects of iron oxide nanoparticles. This knowledge should be taken into account for subsequent studies of the toxicity of iron oxide nanoparticles. Particular attention should be paid to tests conducted on animals with pathologies representing human chronic socially significant diseases. This part of preclinical studies is almost in its infancy but of great importance for further medical translation on nanomaterials to practice.

Detection, biophysical effects, and toxicity of polystyrene nanoparticles to the cnidarian Hydra attenuata

The occurrence of nanoplastic particles (NPs) in the environment has raised concerns about the ecotoxicological risk to aquatic ecosystems. The purpose of this study was to examine the bioavailability and toxicity of 50- and 100-nm transparent polystyrene NPs to the cnidarian Hydra attenuata. The hydras were exposed to increasing concentrations of 50- and 100-nm NPs (1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80 mg/L) for 96 h at 20 °C followed by a 24-h depuration step. Hydras were analyzed for morphological changes, bioaccumulation of NPs using a novel assay for polystyrene NPs, oxidative stress (lipid peroxidation), polar lipids, lipid-like liquid crystals (LCs), and viscosity changes in the post-mitochondrial fraction. The results revealed that the organisms accumulated detectable amounts of NP in a concentration-dependent manner for both the 50- and 100-nm NP that persisted after 24 h in clean media. Changes in morphology were observed with a 50% effect concentration of 3.6 and 18 mg/L for the 50- and 100-nm-diameter NPs respectively. However, based on the particle concentration, the 100 nm proved to be 1.7 times more toxic than the 50-nm NPs. Exposure to NPs led to decreased biomass, lipid peroxidation (LPO), increased polar lipid levels, viscosity, and formation of LCs at the intracellular level. In the more toxic NP (100 nm), NPs in tissues were correlated with LCs, polar lipids, and LPO levels. It appears that the formation of organized LCs and polar lipids of NPs in cells was involved with NP toxicity and could represent a yet unidentified, detoxifying/bioactivation mechanism against colloidal plastics in cells. In conclusion, NPs are bioavailable to hydra and lead to LPO and lipid mobilization in hydra. The capacity of increasing lipid mobilization and LCs could determine the size-dependence toxicity of NPs.

Tea Polyphenols Attenuate Methamphetamine-Induced Neuronal Damage in PC12 Cells by Alleviating Oxidative Stress and Promoting DNA Repair

DNA integrity plays a crucial role in cell survival. Methamphetamine (METH) is an illegal psychoactive substance that is abused worldwide, and repeated exposure to METH could form mass free radicals and induce neuronal apoptosis. It has been reported that free radicals generated by METH treatment can oxidize DNA and hence produce strand breaks, but whether oxidative DNA damage is involved in the neurotoxicity caused by METH remains unclear. Tea polyphenols exert bioactivities through antioxidant-related mechanisms. However, the potential neuroprotective effect of tea polyphenols on METH-induced nerve cell damage and the underlying mechanism remain to be clarified. In this study, oxidative stress, DNA damage, and cell apoptosis were increased after METH exposure, and the expressions of DNA repair-associated proteins, including the phosphorylation of ataxia telangiectasia mutant (p-ATM) and checkpoint kinase 2 (p-Chk2), significantly declined in PC12 cells after high-dose or long-time METH treatment. Additionally, tea polyphenols could protect PC12 cells against METH-induced cell viability loss, reactive oxide species and nitric oxide production, and mitochondrial dysfunction and suppress METH-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, tea polyphenols could increase the antioxidant capacities and expressions of p-ATM and p-Chk2 and then attenuate DNA damage via activating the DNA repair signaling pathway. These findings indicate that METH is likely to induce neurotoxicity by inducing DNA damage, which can be reversed by tea polyphenols. Supplementation with tea polyphenols could be an effective nutritional prevention strategy for METH-induced neurotoxicity and neurodegenerative disease.

Evaluation of cytotoxicity and genotoxicity induced by oleic acid-coated iron oxide nanoparticles in human astrocytes

Iron oxide nanoparticles (ION) are gaining importance as diagnostic and therapeutic tool of central nervous system diseases. Although oleic acid-coated ION (O-ION) have been described as stable and biocompatible, their potential neurotoxicity was scarcely evaluated in human nervous cells so far. The primary aim of this work was to assess the molecular and cellular effects of O-ION on human astrocytes (A172 cells) under different experimental conditions. An extensive set of cyto- and genotoxicity tests was carried out, including lactate dehydrogenase release assay, cell cycle alterations, and cell death production, as well as comet assay, γH2AX assay, and micronucleus (MN) test, considering also iron ion release capacity and alterations in DNA repair ability. Results showed a moderate cytotoxicity related to cell cycle arrest and cell death promotion, regardless of serum presence. O-ION induced genotoxic effects, namely primary DNA damage, as detected by the comet assay and H2AX phosphorylation, but A172 cells were able to repair this particular damage because no chromosome alterations were found (confirmed by MN test results). Accordingly, no effects on the DNA repair ability were observed. The presence of serum proteins did not influence O-ION toxicity. Iron ions released from the O-ION surface seemed not to be responsible for the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects observed. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The Investigation into the Toxic Potential of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Utilizing Rat Pheochromocytoma and Human Neural Stem Cells

Magnetic iron oxide (Magnetite, Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles are widely utilized in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and drug delivery applications due to their superparamagnetism. Surface coatings are often employed to change the properties of the magnetite nanoparticles or to modulate their biological responses. In this study, magnetite nanoparticles were fabricated through hydrothermal synthesis. Hydrophobicity is often increased by surface modification with oleic acid. In this study, however, hydrophobicity was introduced through surface modification with n-octyltriethoxysilane. Both the uncoated (hydrophilic) and coated (hydrophobic) individual nanoparticle sizes measured below 20 nm in diameter, a size range in which magnetite nanoparticles exhibit superparamagnetism. Both types of nanoparticles formed aggregates which were characterized by SEM, TEM, and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The coating process significantly increased both individual particle diameter and aggregate sizes. We tested the neurotoxicity of newly synthesized nanoparticles with two mammalian cell lines, PC12 (rat pheochromocytoma) and ReNcell VM (human neural stem cells). Significant differences were observed in cytotoxicity profiles, which suggests that the cell type (rodent versus human) or the presence of serum matters for nanoparticle toxicology studies. Differences in nanoparticle associations/uptake between the two cell types were observed with Prussian Blue staining. Finally, safe concentrations which did not significantly affect neuronal differentiation profiles were identified for further development of the nanoparticles.

Assessment of oxidative damage induced by iron oxide nanoparticles on different nervous system cells

Iron oxide nanoparticles (ION) have received much attention for their utility in biomedical applications, such as magnetic resonance imaging, drug delivery and hyperthermia, but concerns regarding their potential harmful effects are also growing. Even though ION may induce different toxic effects in a wide variety of cell types and animal systems, there is a notable lack of toxicological data on the human nervous system, particularly important given the increasing number of applications on this specific system. An important mechanism of nanotoxicity is reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and oxidative stress. On this basis, the main objective of this work was to assess the oxidative potential of silica-coated (S-ION) and oleic acid-coated (O-ION) ION on human SH-SY5Y neuronal and A172 glial cells. To this aim, ability of ION to generate ROS (both in the absence and presence of cells) was determined, and consequences of oxidative potential were assessed (i) on DNA by means of the 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine DNA glycosylase (OGG1)-modified comet assay, and (ii) on antioxidant reserves by analyzing ratio of reduced glutathione (GSH) to oxidized glutathione (GSSG). Conditions tested included a range of concentrations, two exposure times (3 and 24 h), and absence and presence of serum in the cell culture media. Results confirmed that, even though ION were not able to produce ROS in acellular environments, ROS formation was increased in the neuronal and glial cells by ION exposure, and was parallel to induction of oxidative DNA damage and, only in the case of neuronal cells treated with S-ION, to decreases in the GSH/GSSG ratio. Present findings suggest the production of oxidative stress as a potential action mechanism leading to the previously reported cellular effects, and indicate that ION may pose a health risk to human nervous system cells by generating oxidative stress, and thus should be used with caution.