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Popkova D, Otstavnykh N, Sintsova O, Baldaev S, Kalina R, Gladkikh I, Isaeva M, Leychenko E. Bioprospecting of Sea Anemones (Cnidaria, Anthozoa, Actiniaria) for β-Defensin-like α-Amylase Inhibitors. Biomedicines 2023; 11:2682. [PMID: 37893056 PMCID: PMC10604346 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11102682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is one of the most serious diseases of our century. The drugs used are limited or have serious side effects. The search for new sources of compounds for effective treatment is relevant. Magnificamide, a peptide inhibitor of mammalian α-amylases, isolated from the venom of sea anemone Heteractis magnifica, can be used for the control of postprandial hyperglycemia in diabetes mellitus. Using the RACE approach, seven isoforms of magnificamide were detected in H. magnifica tentacles. The exon-intron structure of magnificamide genes was first established, and intron retention in the mature peptide-encoding region was revealed. Additionally, an α-amylase inhibitory domain was discovered in the mucins of some sea anemones. According to phylogenetics, sea anemones diverge into two groups depending on the presence of β-defensin-like α-amylase inhibitors and/or mucin-inhibitory domains. It is assumed that the intron retention phenomenon leads to additional diversity in the isoforms of inhibitors and allows for its neofunctionalization in sea anemone tentacles. Bioprospecting of sea anemones of the order Actiniaria for β-defensin-like α-amylase inhibitors revealed a diversity of inhibitory sequences that represents a starting point for the design of effective glucose-lowering drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Elena Leychenko
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia; (D.P.); (N.O.); (O.S.); (S.B.); (R.K.); (I.G.); (M.I.)
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2
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Sea Anemones, Actinoporins, and Cholesterol. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23158771. [PMID: 35955905 PMCID: PMC9369217 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Spanish or Spanish-speaking scientists represent a remarkably populated group within the scientific community studying pore-forming proteins. Some of these scientists, ourselves included, focus on the study of actinoporins, a fascinating group of metamorphic pore-forming proteins produced within the venom of several sea anemones. These toxic proteins can spontaneously transit from a water-soluble fold to an integral membrane ensemble because they specifically recognize sphingomyelin in the membrane. Once they bind to the bilayer, they subsequently oligomerize into a pore that triggers cell-death by osmotic shock. In addition to sphingomyelin, some actinoporins are especially sensible to some other membrane components such as cholesterol. Our group from Universidad Complutense of Madrid has focused greatly on the role played by sterols in this water–membrane transition, a question which still remains only partially solved and constitutes the main core of the article below.
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García‐Linares S, Amigot‐Sánchez R, García‐Montoya C, Heras‐Márquez D, Alfonso C, Luque‐Ortega JR, Gavilanes JG, Martínez‐del‐Pozo Á, Palacios‐Ortega J. Sticholysin I‐II oligomerization in the absence of membranes. FEBS Lett 2022; 596:1029-1036. [DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara García‐Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular Universidad Complutense Madrid Spain
| | - Rafael Amigot‐Sánchez
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular Universidad Complutense Madrid Spain
| | - Carmen García‐Montoya
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular Universidad Complutense Madrid Spain
| | - Diego Heras‐Márquez
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular Universidad Complutense Madrid Spain
| | - Carlos Alfonso
- Systems Biochemistry of Bacterial Division Lab Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas (CSIC) C. Ramiro de Maeztu 9 28040 Madrid Spain
| | - Juan Román Luque‐Ortega
- Molecular Interactions Facility Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas (CSIC) C. Ramiro de Maeztu 9 28040 Madrid Spain
| | - José G. Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular Universidad Complutense Madrid Spain
| | | | - Juan Palacios‐Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular Universidad Complutense Madrid Spain
- Faculty of Science and Engineering Åbo Akademi University Turku Finland
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Alvarez C, Soto C, Cabezas S, Alvarado-Mesén J, Laborde R, Pazos F, Ros U, Hernández AM, Lanio ME. Panorama of the Intracellular Molecular Concert Orchestrated by Actinoporins, Pore-Forming Toxins from Sea Anemones. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13080567. [PMID: 34437438 PMCID: PMC8402351 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Actinoporins (APs) are soluble pore-forming proteins secreted by sea anemones that experience conformational changes originating in pores in the membranes that can lead to cell death. The processes involved in the binding and pore-formation of members of this protein family have been deeply examined in recent years; however, the intracellular responses to APs are only beginning to be understood. Unlike pore formers of bacterial origin, whose intracellular impact has been studied in more detail, currently, we only have knowledge of a few poorly integrated elements of the APs’ intracellular action. In this review, we present and discuss an updated landscape of the studies aimed at understanding the intracellular pathways triggered in response to APs attack with particular reference to sticholysin II, the most active isoform produced by the Caribbean Sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus. To achieve this, we first describe the major alterations these cytolysins elicit on simpler cells, such as non-nucleated mammalian erythrocytes, and then onto more complex eukaryotic cells, including tumor cells. This understanding has provided the basis for the development of novel applications of sticholysins such as the construction of immunotoxins directed against undesirable cells, such as tumor cells, and the design of a cancer vaccine platform. These are among the most interesting potential uses for the members of this toxin family that have been carried out in our laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Alvarez
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana (UH) and Laboratorio UH-Centro de Inmunología Molecular, Havana CP 11600, Cuba; (C.S.); (S.C.); (J.A.-M.); (R.L.); (F.P.); (U.R.); (M.E.L.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Carmen Soto
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana (UH) and Laboratorio UH-Centro de Inmunología Molecular, Havana CP 11600, Cuba; (C.S.); (S.C.); (J.A.-M.); (R.L.); (F.P.); (U.R.); (M.E.L.)
| | - Sheila Cabezas
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana (UH) and Laboratorio UH-Centro de Inmunología Molecular, Havana CP 11600, Cuba; (C.S.); (S.C.); (J.A.-M.); (R.L.); (F.P.); (U.R.); (M.E.L.)
| | - Javier Alvarado-Mesén
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana (UH) and Laboratorio UH-Centro de Inmunología Molecular, Havana CP 11600, Cuba; (C.S.); (S.C.); (J.A.-M.); (R.L.); (F.P.); (U.R.); (M.E.L.)
- Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional, Heredia 40101, Costa Rica
| | - Rady Laborde
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana (UH) and Laboratorio UH-Centro de Inmunología Molecular, Havana CP 11600, Cuba; (C.S.); (S.C.); (J.A.-M.); (R.L.); (F.P.); (U.R.); (M.E.L.)
| | - Fabiola Pazos
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana (UH) and Laboratorio UH-Centro de Inmunología Molecular, Havana CP 11600, Cuba; (C.S.); (S.C.); (J.A.-M.); (R.L.); (F.P.); (U.R.); (M.E.L.)
| | - Uris Ros
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana (UH) and Laboratorio UH-Centro de Inmunología Molecular, Havana CP 11600, Cuba; (C.S.); (S.C.); (J.A.-M.); (R.L.); (F.P.); (U.R.); (M.E.L.)
- Institute for Genetics and Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-strasse 26, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Ana María Hernández
- Immunobiology Division, Molecular Immunology Institute, Center of Molecular Immunology (CIM), Playa, Havana CP 11600, Cuba;
| | - María Eliana Lanio
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana (UH) and Laboratorio UH-Centro de Inmunología Molecular, Havana CP 11600, Cuba; (C.S.); (S.C.); (J.A.-M.); (R.L.); (F.P.); (U.R.); (M.E.L.)
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Palacios-Ortega J, García-Linares S, Rivera-de-Torre E, Heras-Márquez D, Gavilanes JG, Slotte JP, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Structural foundations of sticholysin functionality. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2021; 1869:140696. [PMID: 34246789 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2021.140696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Actinoporins constitute a family of α pore-forming toxins produced by sea anemones. The soluble fold of these proteins consists of a β-sandwich flanked by two α-helices. Actinoporins exert their activity by specifically recognizing sphingomyelin at their target membranes. Once there, they penetrate the membrane with their N-terminal α-helices, a process that leads to the formation of cation-selective pores. These pores kill the target cells by provoking an osmotic shock on them. In this review, we examine the role and relevance of the structural features of actinoporins, down to the residue level. We look at the specific amino acids that play significant roles in the function of actinoporins and their fold. Particular emphasis is given to those residues that display a high degree of conservation across the actinoporin sequences known to date. In light of the latest findings in the field, the membrane requirements for pore formation, the effect of lipid composition, and the process of pore formation are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Palacios-Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain; Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.
| | - Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Diego Heras-Márquez
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
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6
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Surm JM, Moran Y. Insights into how development and life-history dynamics shape the evolution of venom. EvoDevo 2021; 12:1. [PMID: 33413660 PMCID: PMC7791878 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-020-00171-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Venomous animals are a striking example of the convergent evolution of a complex trait. These animals have independently evolved an apparatus that synthesizes, stores, and secretes a mixture of toxic compounds to the target animal through the infliction of a wound. Among these distantly related animals, some can modulate and compartmentalize functionally distinct venoms related to predation and defense. A process to separate distinct venoms can occur within and across complex life cycles as well as more streamlined ontogenies, depending on their life-history requirements. Moreover, the morphological and cellular complexity of the venom apparatus likely facilitates the functional diversity of venom deployed within a given life stage. Intersexual variation of venoms has also evolved further contributing to the massive diversity of toxic compounds characterized in these animals. These changes in the biochemical phenotype of venom can directly affect the fitness of these animals, having important implications in their diet, behavior, and mating biology. In this review, we explore the current literature that is unraveling the temporal dynamics of the venom system that are required by these animals to meet their ecological functions. These recent findings have important consequences in understanding the evolution and development of a convergent complex trait and its organismal and ecological implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim M Surm
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Yehu Moran
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel.
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7
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Functional and Structural Variation among Sticholysins, Pore-Forming Proteins from the Sea Anemone Stichodactyla helianthus. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21238915. [PMID: 33255441 PMCID: PMC7727798 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21238915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Venoms constitute complex mixtures of many different molecules arising from evolution in processes driven by continuous prey-predator interactions. One of the most common compounds in these venomous cocktails are pore-forming proteins, a family of toxins whose activity relies on the disruption of the plasmatic membranes by forming pores. The venom of sea anemones, belonging to the oldest lineage of venomous animals, contains a large amount of a characteristic group of pore-forming proteins known as actinoporins. They bind specifically to sphingomyelin-containing membranes and suffer a conformational metamorphosis that drives them to make pores. This event usually leads cells to death by osmotic shock. Sticholysins are the actinoporins produced by Stichodactyla helianthus. Three different isotoxins are known: Sticholysins I, II, and III. They share very similar amino acid sequence and three-dimensional structure but display different behavior in terms of lytic activity and ability to interact with cholesterol, an important lipid component of vertebrate membranes. In addition, sticholysins can act in synergy when exerting their toxin action. The subtle, but important, molecular nuances that explain their different behavior are described and discussed throughout the text. Improving our knowledge about sticholysins behavior is important for eventually developing them into biotechnological tools.
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Rivera-de-Torre E, Palacios-Ortega J, Garb JE, Slotte JP, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Structural and functional characterization of sticholysin III: A newly discovered actinoporin within the venom of the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 689:108435. [PMID: 32485153 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Actinoporins are a family of pore-forming toxins produced by sea anemones as part of their venomous cocktail. These proteins remain soluble and stably folded in aqueous solution, but when interacting with sphingomyelin-containing lipid membranes, they become integral oligomeric membrane structures that form a pore permeable to cations, which leads to cell death by osmotic shock. Actinoporins appear as multigenic families within the genome of sea anemones: several genes encoding very similar actinoporins are detected within the same species. The Caribbean Sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus produces three actinoporins (sticholysins I, II and III; StnI, StnII and StnIII) that differ in their toxic potency. For example, StnII is about four-fold more effective than StnI against sheep erythrocytes in causing hemolysis, and both show synergy. However, StnIII, recently discovered in the S. helianthus transcriptome, has not been characterized so far. Here we describe StnIII's spectroscopic and functional properties and show its potential to interact with the other Stns. StnIII seems to maintain the well-preserved fold of all actinoporins, characterized by a high content of β-sheet, but it is significantly less thermostable. Its functional characterization shows that the critical concentration needed to form active pores is higher than for either StnI or StnII, suggesting differences in behavior when oligomerizing on membrane surfaces. Our results show that StnIII is an interesting and unexpected piece in the puzzle of how this Caribbean Sea anemone species modulates its venomous activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain; Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, USA
| | - Juan Palacios-Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain; Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Jessica E Garb
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, USA
| | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
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Ramírez-Carreto S, Miranda-Zaragoza B, Rodríguez-Almazán C. Actinoporins: From the Structure and Function to the Generation of Biotechnological and Therapeutic Tools. Biomolecules 2020; 10:E539. [PMID: 32252469 PMCID: PMC7226409 DOI: 10.3390/biom10040539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Actinoporins (APs) are a family of pore-forming toxins (PFTs) from sea anemones. These biomolecules exhibit the ability to exist as soluble monomers within an aqueous medium or as constitutively open oligomers in biological membranes. Through their conformational plasticity, actinoporins are considered good candidate molecules to be included for the rational design of molecular tools, such as immunotoxins directed against tumor cells and stochastic biosensors based on nanopores to analyze unique DNA or protein molecules. Additionally, the ability of these proteins to bind to sphingomyelin (SM) facilitates their use for the design of molecular probes to identify SM in the cells. The immunomodulatory activity of actinoporins in liposomal formulations for vaccine development has also been evaluated. In this review, we describe the potential of actinoporins for use in the development of molecular tools that could be used for possible medical and biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Claudia Rodríguez-Almazán
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico; (S.R.-C.); (B.M.-Z.)
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Pore-forming toxins from sea anemones: from protein-membrane interaction to its implications for developing biomedical applications. ADVANCES IN BIOMEMBRANES AND LIPID SELF-ASSEMBLY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.abl.2020.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Pore-Forming Proteins from Cnidarians and Arachnids as Potential Biotechnological Tools. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11060370. [PMID: 31242582 PMCID: PMC6628452 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal venoms are complex mixtures of highly specialized toxic molecules. Cnidarians and arachnids produce pore-forming proteins (PFPs) directed against the plasma membrane of their target cells. Among PFPs from cnidarians, actinoporins stand out for their small size and molecular simplicity. While native actinoporins require only sphingomyelin for membrane binding, engineered chimeras containing a recognition antibody-derived domain fused to an actinoporin isoform can nonetheless serve as highly specific immunotoxins. Examples of such constructs targeted against malignant cells have been already reported. However, PFPs from arachnid venoms are less well-studied from a structural and functional point of view. Spiders from the Latrodectus genus are professional insect hunters that, as part of their toxic arsenal, produce large PFPs known as latrotoxins. Interestingly, some latrotoxins have been identified as potent and highly-specific insecticides. Given the proteinaceous nature of these toxins, their promising future use as efficient bioinsecticides is discussed throughout this Perspective. Protein engineering and large-scale recombinant production are critical steps for the use of these PFPs as tools to control agriculturally important insect pests. In summary, both families of PFPs, from Cnidaria and Arachnida, appear to be molecules with promising biotechnological applications.
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12
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Gerdol M, Cervelli M, Oliverio M, Modica MV. Piercing Fishes: Porin Expansion and Adaptation to Hematophagy in the Vampire Snail Cumia reticulata. Mol Biol Evol 2019; 35:2654-2668. [PMID: 30099551 PMCID: PMC6231492 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msy156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytolytic pore-forming proteins are widespread in living organisms, being mostly involved in both sides of the host-pathogen interaction, either contributing to the innate defense or promoting infection. In venomous organisms, such as spiders, insects, scorpions, and sea anemones, pore-forming proteins are often secreted as key components of the venom. Coluporins are pore-forming proteins recently discovered in the Mediterranean hematophagous snail Cumia reticulata (Colubrariidae), highly expressed in the salivary glands that discharge their secretion at close contact with the host. To understand their putative functional role, we investigated coluporins' molecular diversity and evolutionary patterns. Coluporins is a well-diversified family including at least 30 proteins, with an overall low sequence similarity but sharing a remarkably conserved actinoporin-like predicted structure. Tracking the evolutionary history of the molluscan porin genes revealed a scattered distribution of this family, which is present in some other lineages of predatory gastropods, including venomous conoidean snails. Comparative transcriptomic analyses highlighted the expansion of porin genes as a lineage-specific feature of colubrariids. Coluporins seem to have evolved from a single ancestral porin gene present in the latest common ancestor of all Caenogastropoda, undergoing massive expansion and diversification in this colubrariid lineage through repeated gene duplication events paired with widespread episodic positive selection. As for other parasites, these findings are congruent with a "one-sided arms race," equipping the parasite with multiple variants in order to broaden its host spectrum. Overall, our results pinpoint a crucial adaptive role for coluporins in the evolution of the peculiar trophic ecology of vampire snails.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Gerdol
- Department of Life Sciences, Trieste University, Italy
| | | | - Marco Oliverio
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies "Charles Darwin", Sapienza University, Roma, Italy
| | - Maria Vittoria Modica
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy.,UMR5247, University of Montpellier, France
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13
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Madio B, King GF, Undheim EAB. Sea Anemone Toxins: A Structural Overview. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:E325. [PMID: 31159357 PMCID: PMC6627431 DOI: 10.3390/md17060325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Sea anemones produce venoms of exceptional molecular diversity, with at least 17 different molecular scaffolds reported to date. These venom components have traditionally been classified according to pharmacological activity and amino acid sequence. However, this classification system suffers from vulnerabilities due to functional convergence and functional promiscuity. Furthermore, for most known sea anemone toxins, the exact receptors they target are either unknown, or at best incomplete. In this review, we first provide an overview of the sea anemone venom system and then focus on the venom components. We have organised the venom components by distinguishing firstly between proteins and non-proteinaceous compounds, secondly between enzymes and other proteins without enzymatic activity, then according to the structural scaffold, and finally according to molecular target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Madio
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
| | - Eivind A B Undheim
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
- Centre for Ecology and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
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Surm JM, Smith HL, Madio B, Undheim EA, King GF, Hamilton BR, Burg CA, Pavasovic A, Prentis PJ. A process of convergent amplification and tissue‐specific expression dominates the evolution of toxin and toxin‐like genes in sea anemones. Mol Ecol 2019; 28:2272-2289. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.15084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Revised: 03/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Joachim M. Surm
- Faculty of Health, School of Biomedical Sciences Queensland University of Technology Kelvin Grove Queensland Australia
- Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation Queensland University of Technology Kelvin Grove Queensland Australia
| | - Hayden L. Smith
- Science and Engineering Faculty, School of Earth, Environmental and Biological Sciences Queensland University of Technology Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Institute for Future Environments Queensland University of Technology Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Bruno Madio
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience University of Queensland Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Eivind A.B. Undheim
- Centre for Advanced Imaging University of Queensland Saint Lucia Queensland Australia
| | - Glenn F. King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience University of Queensland Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Brett R. Hamilton
- Centre for Advanced Imaging University of Queensland Saint Lucia Queensland Australia
- Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis University of Queensland Saint Lucia Queensland Australia
| | - Chloé A. Burg
- Faculty of Health, School of Biomedical Sciences Queensland University of Technology Kelvin Grove Queensland Australia
- Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation Queensland University of Technology Kelvin Grove Queensland Australia
| | - Ana Pavasovic
- Faculty of Health, School of Biomedical Sciences Queensland University of Technology Kelvin Grove Queensland Australia
| | - Peter J. Prentis
- Science and Engineering Faculty, School of Earth, Environmental and Biological Sciences Queensland University of Technology Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Institute for Future Environments Queensland University of Technology Brisbane Queensland Australia
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15
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Kvetkina AN, Leychenko EV, Yurchenko EA, Pislyagin EA, Peigneur S, Tytgat Y, Isaeva MP, Aminin DL, Kozlovskaya EP. A New Iq-Peptide of the Kunitz Type from the Heteractis magnifica Sea Anemone Exhibits Neuroprotective Activity in a Model of Alzheimer’s Disease. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF BIOORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s106816201804012x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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16
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Tsutsui K, Sato T. Identification of the two new, functional actinoporins, CJTOX I and CJTOX II, from the deep-sea anemone Cribrinopsis japonica. Toxicon 2018; 148:40-49. [PMID: 29649486 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Revised: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Actinoporins are pore-forming proteins found in sea anemones. Although we now have a large collection of data on actinoporins, our knowledge is based heavily on those identified in shallow-water anemones. Because the deep sea differs considerably from shallow waters in hydrostatic pressures, temperatures, and the prey composition, the deep-sea actinoporin may have evolved in unique ways. This study, therefore, aimed to obtain new actinoporins in the deep-sea anemone Cribrinopis japonica (Actiniaria, Actiniidae). An actinoporin-like sequence was identified from the previously established C. japonica RNA-Seq database, and the complete length (663 bp) of the deep-sea actinoporin gene, Cjtox I, was obtained. In addition, a similar gene, Cjtox II (666 bp), was also identified from RNA of actinopharynx. CJTOX I and CJTOX II were similar in their primary structures, but CJTOX I lacked one residue in the middle of the protein. There was also a difference in the gene expression in live animals, where only Cjtox I was expressed in tentacles of C. japonica. In the heterologous expression where BL21 (DE3) strain was retransformed with the plasmid containing either Cjtox I or Cjtox II gene, the supernatants of both cell lysates showed hemolytic activity on the equine erythrocytes. Preincubation of the supernatants with sphingomyelin caused reduced activity, implying that the CJTOX I and II would target sphingomyelin as with other actinoporins. Because of the structures similarity to the known actinoporins and the sphingomyelin-inhibitable hemolytic activity, both CJTOX I and II were concluded to be new actinoporins, which were identified for the first time from a deep-sea anemone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenta Tsutsui
- Graduate School of Nanobioscience, Yokohama City University, 22-2 Seto, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, 236-0027, Japan
| | - Tomomi Sato
- Graduate School of Nanobioscience, Yokohama City University, 22-2 Seto, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, 236-0027, Japan.
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17
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Leychenko E, Isaeva M, Tkacheva E, Zelepuga E, Kvetkina A, Guzev K, Monastyrnaya M, Kozlovskaya E. Multigene Family of Pore-Forming Toxins from Sea Anemone Heteractis crispa. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E183. [PMID: 29794988 PMCID: PMC6025637 DOI: 10.3390/md16060183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sea anemones produce pore-forming toxins, actinoporins, which are interesting as tools for cytoplasmic membranes study, as well as being potential therapeutic agents for cancer therapy. This investigation is devoted to structural and functional study of the Heteractis crispa actinoporins diversity. Here, we described a multigene family consisting of 47 representatives expressed in the sea anemone tentacles as prepropeptide-coding transcripts. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that actinoporin clustering is consistent with the division of sea anemones into superfamilies and families. The transcriptomes of both H. crispa and Heteractis magnifica appear to contain a large repertoire of similar genes representing a rapid expansion of the actinoporin family due to gene duplication and sequence divergence. The presence of the most abundant specific group of actinoporins in H. crispa is the major difference between these species. The functional analysis of six recombinant actinoporins revealed that H. crispa actinoporin grouping was consistent with the different hemolytic activity of their representatives. According to molecular modeling data, we assume that the direction of the N-terminal dipole moment tightly reflects the actinoporins' ability to possess hemolytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Leychenko
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
- School of Natural Sciences, Far Eastern Federal University, Sukhanova Street 8, Vladivostok 690091, Russia.
| | - Marina Isaeva
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
- School of Natural Sciences, Far Eastern Federal University, Sukhanova Street 8, Vladivostok 690091, Russia.
| | - Ekaterina Tkacheva
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
| | - Elena Zelepuga
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
| | - Aleksandra Kvetkina
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
| | - Konstantin Guzev
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
| | - Margarita Monastyrnaya
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
| | - Emma Kozlovskaya
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
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18
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Rivera-de-Torre E, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á, Garb JE. Stichodactyla helianthus' de novo transcriptome assembly: Discovery of a new actinoporin isoform. Toxicon 2018; 150:105-114. [PMID: 29787779 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Revised: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Transcriptomic profiling of venom producing tissues from different animals is an effective approach for discovering new toxins useful in biotechnological and pharmaceutical applications, as well in evolutionary comparative studies of venomous animals. Stichodactyla helianthus is a Caribbean sea anemone which produces actinoporins as part of its toxic venom. This family of pore forming toxins is multigenic and at least two different isoforms, encoded by separate genes, are produced by S. helianthus. These isoforms, sticholysins I and II, share 93% amino acid identity but differ in their pore forming activity and act synergistically. This observation suggests that other actinoporin isoforms, if present in the venomous mixture, could offer an advantageous strategy to modulate whole venom activity. Using high-throughput sequencing we generated a de novo transcriptome of S. helianthus and determined the relative expression of assembled transcripts using RNA-Seq to better characterize components of this species' venom, focusing on actinoporin diversity. Applying this approach, we have discovered at least one new actinoporin variant from S. helianthus in addition to several other putative venom components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, USA; Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de CC. Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de CC. Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jessica E Garb
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, USA
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19
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Ben-Ari H, Paz M, Sher D. The chemical armament of reef-building corals: inter- and intra-specific variation and the identification of an unusual actinoporin in Stylophora pistilata. Sci Rep 2018; 8:251. [PMID: 29321526 PMCID: PMC5762905 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-18355-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Corals, like other cnidarians, are venomous animals that rely on stinging cells (nematocytes) and their toxins to catch prey and defend themselves against predators. However, little is known about the chemical arsenal employed by stony corals, despite their ecological importance. Here, we show large differences in the density of nematocysts and whole-body hemolytic activity between different species of reef-building corals. In the branched coral Stylophora pistillata, the tips of the branches exhibited a greater hemolytic activity than the bases. Hemolytic activity and nematocyst density were significantly lower in Stylophora that were maintained for close to a year in captivity compared to corals collected from the wild. A cysteine-containing actinoporin was identified in Stylophora following partial purification and tandem mass spectrometry. This toxin, named Δ-Pocilopotoxin-Spi1 (Δ-PCTX-Spi1) is the first hemolytic toxin to be partially isolated and characterized in true reef-building corals. Loss of hemolytic activity during chromatography suggests that this actinoporin is only one of potentially several hemolytic molecules. These results suggest that the capacity to employ offensive and defensive chemicals by corals is a dynamic trait within and between coral species, and provide a first step towards identifying the molecular components of the coral chemical armament.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanit Ben-Ari
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.,The Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences, Eilat, Israel
| | - Moran Paz
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Daniel Sher
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
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20
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Peptide fingerprinting of the sea anemone Heteractis magnifica mucus revealed neurotoxins, Kunitz-type proteinase inhibitors and a new β-defensin α-amylase inhibitor. J Proteomics 2017; 173:12-21. [PMID: 29191747 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Revised: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Sea anemone mucus, due to its multiple and vital functions, is a valuable substance for investigation of new biologically active peptides. In this work, compounds of Heteractis magnifica mucus were separated by multistage liquid chromatography and resulting fractions were analyzed by MALDI-TOF MS. Peptide maps constructed according to the molecular masses and hydrophobicity showed presence of 326 both new and known peptides. Several major peptides from mucus were identified, including the sodium channel toxin RpII isolated earlier from H. magnifica, and four Kunitz-type proteinase inhibitors identical to H. crispa ones. Kunitz-type transcript diversity was studied and sequences of mature peptides were deduced. New β-defensin α-amylase inhibitor, a homolog of helianthamide from Stichodactyla helianthus, was isolated and structurally characterized. Overall, H. magnifica is a source of biologically active peptides with great pharmacological potential. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE Proteinase and α-amylase inhibitors along with toxins are major components of H. magnifica mucus which play an important role in the successful existence of sea anemones. Obtained peptide maps create a basis for more accurate identification of peptides during future transcriptomic/genomic studies of sea anemone H. magnifica.
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21
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Rivera-de-Torre E, Palacios-Ortega J, García-Linares S, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. One single salt bridge explains the different cytolytic activities shown by actinoporins sticholysin I and II from the venom of Stichodactyla helianthus. Arch Biochem Biophys 2017; 636:79-89. [PMID: 29138096 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/10/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Sticholysins I and II (StnI and StnII), α-pore forming toxins from the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus, are water-soluble toxic proteins which upon interaction with lipid membranes of specific composition bind to the bilayer, extend and insert their N-terminal α-helix, and become oligomeric integral membrane structures. The result is a pore that leads to cell death by osmotic shock. StnI and StnII show 93% of sequence identity, but also different membrane pore-forming activities. The hydrophobicity profile along the first 18 residues revealed differences which were canceled by substituting StnI amino acids 2 and 9. Accordingly, the StnID9A mutant, and the corresponding StnIE2AD9A variant, showed enhanced hemolytic activity. They also revealed a key role for an exposed salt bridge between Asp9 and Lys68. This interaction is not possible in StnII but appears conserved in the other two well-characterized actinoporins, equinatoxin II and fragaceatoxin C. The StnII mutant A8D showed that this single replacement was enough to transform StnII into a version with impaired pore-forming activity. Overall, the results show the key importance of this salt bridge linking the N-terminal stretch to the β-sandwich core. A conclusion of general application for the understanding of salt bridges role in protein design, folding and stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan Palacios-Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
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22
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Bioactivity of Ag Nanoclusters Capped with Crude Protein Extracts from the Sea Anemone Heteractis magnifica. BIONANOSCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s12668-017-0414-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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23
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García-Linares S, Rivera-de-Torre E, Palacios-Ortega J, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-del-Pozo Á. The Metamorphic Transformation of a Water-Soluble Monomeric Protein Into an Oligomeric Transmembrane Pore. ADVANCES IN BIOMEMBRANES AND LIPID SELF-ASSEMBLY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.abl.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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24
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Evolution of the Cytolytic Pore-Forming Proteins (Actinoporins) in Sea Anemones. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8120368. [PMID: 27941639 PMCID: PMC5198562 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8120368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Sea anemones (Cnidaria, Anthozoa, and Actiniaria) use toxic peptides to incapacitate and immobilize prey and to deter potential predators. Their toxin arsenal is complex, targeting a variety of functionally important protein complexes and macromolecules involved in cellular homeostasis. Among these, actinoporins are one of the better characterized toxins; these venom proteins form a pore in cellular membranes containing sphingomyelin. We used a combined bioinformatic and phylogenetic approach to investigate how actinoporins have evolved across three superfamilies of sea anemones (Actinioidea, Metridioidea, and Actinostoloidea). Our analysis identified 90 candidate actinoporins across 20 species. We also found clusters of six actinoporin-like genes in five species of sea anemone (Nematostella vectensis, Stomphia coccinea, Epiactis japonica, Heteractis crispa, and Diadumene leucolena); these actinoporin-like sequences resembled actinoporins but have a higher sequence similarity with toxins from fungi, cone snails, and Hydra. Comparative analysis of the candidate actinoporins highlighted variable and conserved regions within actinoporins that may pertain to functional variation. Although multiple residues are involved in initiating sphingomyelin recognition and membrane binding, there is a high rate of replacement for a specific tryptophan with leucine (W112L) and other hydrophobic residues. Residues thought to be involved with oligomerization were variable, while those forming the phosphocholine (POC) binding site and the N-terminal region involved with cell membrane penetration were highly conserved.
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25
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García-Linares S, Maula T, Rivera-de-Torre E, Gavilanes JG, Slotte JP, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Role of the Tryptophan Residues in the Specific Interaction of the Sea Anemone Stichodactyla helianthus's Actinoporin Sticholysin II with Biological Membranes. Biochemistry 2016; 55:6406-6420. [PMID: 27933775 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.6b00935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Actinoporins are pore-forming toxins from sea anemones. Upon interaction with sphingomyelin-containing bilayers, they become integral oligomeric membrane structures that form a pore. Sticholysin II from Stichodactyla helianthus contains five tryptophans located at strategic positions; its role has now been studied using different mutants. Results show that W43 and W115 play a determinant role in maintaining the high thermostability of the protein, while W146 provides specific interactions for protomer-protomer assembly. W110 and W114 sustain the hydrophobic effect, which is one of the major driving forces for membrane binding in the presence of Chol. However, in its absence, additional interactions with sphingomyelin are required. These conclusions were confirmed with two sphingomyelin analogues, one of which had impaired hydrogen bonding properties. The results obtained support actinoporins' Trp residues playing a major role in membrane recognition and binding, but their residues have an only minor influence on the diffusion and oligomerization steps needed to assemble a functional pore.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , Madrid, Spain.,Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
| | - Terhi Maula
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
| | | | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , Madrid, Spain
| | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
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26
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Macrander J, Broe M, Daly M. Tissue-Specific Venom Composition and Differential Gene Expression in Sea Anemones. Genome Biol Evol 2016; 8:2358-75. [PMID: 27389690 PMCID: PMC5010892 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evw155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cnidarians represent one of the few groups of venomous animals that lack a centralized venom transmission system. Instead, they are equipped with stinging capsules collectively known as nematocysts. Nematocysts vary in abundance and type across different tissues; however, the venom composition in most species remains unknown. Depending on the tissue type, the venom composition in sea anemones may be vital for predation, defense, or digestion. Using a tissue-specific RNA-seq approach, we characterize the venom assemblage in the tentacles, mesenterial filaments, and column for three species of sea anemone (Anemonia sulcata, Heteractis crispa, and Megalactis griffithsi). These taxa vary with regard to inferred venom potency, symbiont abundance, and nematocyst diversity. We show that there is significant variation in abundance of toxin-like genes across tissues and species. Although the cumulative toxin abundance for the column was consistently the lowest, contributions to the overall toxin assemblage varied considerably among tissues for different toxin types. Our gene ontology (GO) analyses also show sharp contrasts between conserved GO groups emerging from whole transcriptome analysis and tissue-specific expression among GO groups in our differential expression analysis. This study provides a framework for future characterization of tissue-specific venom and other functionally important genes in this lineage of simple bodied animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Macrander
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University
| | - Michael Broe
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University
| | - Marymegan Daly
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University
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27
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Valle A, Hervis Y, Socas L, Canet L, Faheem M, Barbosa J, Lanio M, Pazos I. The multigene families of actinoporins (part II): Strategies for heterologous production in Escherichia coli. Toxicon 2016; 118:64-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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28
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Rivera-de-Torre E, García-Linares S, Alegre-Cebollada J, Lacadena J, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Synergistic Action of Actinoporin Isoforms from the Same Sea Anemone Species Assembled into Functionally Active Heteropores. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:14109-14119. [PMID: 27129251 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.710491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the toxic polypeptides secreted in the venom of sea anemones, actinoporins are the pore-forming toxins whose toxic activity relies on the formation of oligomeric pores within biological membranes. Intriguingly, actinoporins appear as multigene families that give rise to many protein isoforms in the same individual displaying high sequence identities but large functional differences. However, the evolutionary advantage of producing such similar isotoxins is not fully understood. Here, using sticholysins I and II (StnI and StnII) from the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus, it is shown that actinoporin isoforms can potentiate each other's activity. Through hemolysis and calcein releasing assays, it is revealed that mixtures of StnI and StnII are more lytic than equivalent preparations of the corresponding isolated isoforms. It is then proposed that this synergy is due to the assembly of heteropores because (i) StnI and StnII can be chemically cross-linked at the membrane and (ii) the affinity of sticholysin mixtures for the membrane is increased with respect to any of them acting in isolation, as revealed by isothermal titration calorimetry experiments. These results help us understand the multigene nature of actinoporins and may be extended to other families of toxins that require oligomerization to exert toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid
| | - Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid
| | | | - Javier Lacadena
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid.
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid.
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29
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Macrander J, Broe M, Daly M. Multi-copy venom genes hidden in de novo transcriptome assemblies, a cautionary tale with the snakelocks sea anemone Anemonia sulcata (Pennant, 1977). Toxicon 2015; 108:184-8. [PMID: 26464059 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.09.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Using a partial transcriptome of the snakelocks anemone (Anemonia sulcata) we identify toxin gene candidates that were incorrectly assembled into several Trinity components. Our approach recovers hidden diversity found within some toxin gene families that would otherwise go undetected when using Trinity, a widely used program for venom-focused transcriptome reconstructions. Unidentified hidden transcripts may significantly impact conclusions made regarding venom composition (or other multi-copy conserved genes) when using Trinity or other de novo assembly programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Macrander
- The Ohio State University, Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, 1315 Kinnear Road, Columbus, OH 43215, USA.
| | - Michael Broe
- The Ohio State University, Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, 1315 Kinnear Road, Columbus, OH 43215, USA
| | - Marymegan Daly
- The Ohio State University, Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, 1315 Kinnear Road, Columbus, OH 43215, USA
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Valle A, Alvarado-Mesén J, Lanio M, Álvarez C, Barbosa J, Pazos I. The multigene families of actinoporins (part I): Isoforms and genetic structure. Toxicon 2015; 103:176-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Revised: 05/31/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Macrander J, Brugler MR, Daly M. A RNA-seq approach to identify putative toxins from acrorhagi in aggressive and non-aggressive Anthopleura elegantissima polyps. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:221. [PMID: 25886045 PMCID: PMC4397815 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-1417-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The use of venom in intraspecific aggression is uncommon and venom-transmitting structures specifically used for intraspecific competition are found in few lineages of venomous taxa. Next-generation transcriptome sequencing allows robust characterization of venom diversity and exploration of functionally unique tissues. Using a tissue-specific RNA-seq approach, we investigate the venom composition and gene ontology diversity of acrorhagi, specialized structures used in intraspecific competition, in aggressive and non-aggressive polyps of the aggregating sea anemone Anthopleura elegantissima (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Hexacorallia: Actiniaria: Actiniidae). RESULTS Collectively, we generated approximately 450,000 transcripts from acrorhagi of aggressive and non-aggressive polyps. For both transcriptomes we identified 65 candidate sea anemone toxin genes, representing phospholipase A2s, cytolysins, neurotoxins, and acrorhagins. When compared to previously characterized sea anemone toxin assemblages, each transcriptome revealed greater within-species sequence divergence across all toxin types. The transcriptome of the aggressive polyp had a higher abundance of type II voltage gated potassium channel toxins/Kunitz-type protease inhibitors and type II acrorhagins. Using toxin-like proteins from other venomous taxa, we also identified 612 candidate toxin-like transcripts with signaling regions, potentially unidentified secretory toxin-like proteins. Among these, metallopeptidases and cysteine rich (CRISP) candidate transcripts were in high abundance. Furthermore, our gene ontology analyses identified a high prevalence of genes associated with "blood coagulation" and "positive regulation of apoptosis", as well as "nucleoside: sodium symporter activity" and "ion channel binding". The resulting assemblage of expressed genes may represent synergistic proteins associated with toxins or proteins related to the morphology and behavior exhibited by the aggressive polyp. CONCLUSION We implement a multifaceted approach to investigate the assemblage of expressed genes specifically within acrorhagi, specialized structures used only for intraspecific competition. By combining differential expression, phylogenetic, and gene ontology analyses, we identify several candidate toxins and other potentially important proteins in acrorhagi of A. elegantissima. Although not all of the toxins identified are used in intraspecific competition, our analysis highlights some candidates that may play a vital role in intraspecific competition. Our findings provide a framework for further investigation into components of venom used exclusively for intraspecific competition in acrorhagi-bearing sea anemones and potentially other venomous animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Macrander
- The Ohio State University, Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, 318 W. 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH, 43210-1293, USA.
| | - Mercer R Brugler
- Sackler Institute for Comparative Genomics, Division of Invertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, NY, 10024, USA. .,Biological Sciences Department, NYC College of Technology (CUNY), 300 Jay Street, Brooklyn, NY, 11201, USA.
| | - Marymegan Daly
- The Ohio State University, Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, 318 W. 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH, 43210-1293, USA.
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Glasser E, Rachamim T, Aharonovich D, Sher D. Hydra actinoporin-like toxin-1, an unusual hemolysin from the nematocyst venom of Hydra magnipapillata which belongs to an extended gene family. Toxicon 2014; 91:103-13. [PMID: 24768765 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Revised: 03/23/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cnidarians rely on their nematocysts and the venom injected through these unique weaponry systems to catch prey and protect themselves from predators. The development and physiology of the nematocysts of Hydra magnipapillata, a classic model organism, have been intensively studied, yet the composition and biochemical activity of their venom components are mostly unknown. Here, we show that hydra actinoporin-like toxins (HALTs), which have previously been associated with Hydra nematocysts, belong to a multigene family comprising six genes, which have diverged from a single common ancestor. All six genes are expressed in a population of Hydra magnipapillata. When expressed recombinantly, HALT-1 (Δ-HYTX-Hma1a), an actinoporin-like protein found in the stenoteles (the main penetrating nematocysts used in prey capture), reveals hemolytic activity, albeit about two-thirds lower than that of the anemone actinoporin equinatoxin II (EqTII, Δ-AITX-Aeq1a). HALT-1 also differs from EqTII in the size of its pores, and likely does not utilize sphingomyelin as a membrane receptor. We describe features of the HALT-1 sequence which may contribute to this difference in activity, and speculate on the role of this unusual family of pore-forming toxins in the ecology of Hydra.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliezra Glasser
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, 31905 Haifa, Israel
| | - Tamar Rachamim
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, 31905 Haifa, Israel
| | - Dikla Aharonovich
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, 31905 Haifa, Israel
| | - Daniel Sher
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, 31905 Haifa, Israel.
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García-Linares S, Castrillo I, Bruix M, Menéndez M, Alegre-Cebollada J, Martínez-del-Pozo Á, Gavilanes JG. Three-dimensional structure of the actinoporin sticholysin I. Influence of long-distance effects on protein function. Arch Biochem Biophys 2013; 532:39-45. [PMID: 23376038 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2013.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2012] [Revised: 01/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/19/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Actinoporins are water-soluble proteins with the ability to form pores upon insertion into biological membranes. They constitute a family of proteins with high degree of sequence identities but different hemolytic activities, suggesting that minor conformational arrangements result in major functional changes. A good example of this situation is the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus which produces two very similar actinoporins, sticholysins I (StnI) and II (StnII), but of very different hemolytic efficiency. Within this idea, given that the high resolution three-dimensional structure of StnII is already known, we have now solved that one corresponding to StnI in order to analyze the influence of particular residues on the conformation and activity of these proteins. In addition, random mutagenesis has been also used to produce five less hemolytic variants of StnI. All these mutations map to functionally relevant regions because they are probably involved in conformational changes associated with pore formation, which take place after membrane binding, and involve long-distance rearrangements of the polypeptide chain of actinoporins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Frazão B, Vasconcelos V, Antunes A. Sea anemone (Cnidaria, Anthozoa, Actiniaria) toxins: an overview. Mar Drugs 2012; 10:1812-1851. [PMID: 23015776 PMCID: PMC3447340 DOI: 10.3390/md10081812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2012] [Revised: 07/09/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The Cnidaria phylum includes organisms that are among the most venomous animals. The Anthozoa class includes sea anemones, hard corals, soft corals and sea pens. The composition of cnidarian venoms is not known in detail, but they appear to contain a variety of compounds. Currently around 250 of those compounds have been identified (peptides, proteins, enzymes and proteinase inhibitors) and non-proteinaceous substances (purines, quaternary ammonium compounds, biogenic amines and betaines), but very few genes encoding toxins were described and only a few related protein three-dimensional structures are available. Toxins are used for prey acquisition, but also to deter potential predators (with neurotoxicity and cardiotoxicity effects) and even to fight territorial disputes. Cnidaria toxins have been identified on the nematocysts located on the tentacles, acrorhagi and acontia, and in the mucous coat that covers the animal body. Sea anemone toxins comprise mainly proteins and peptides that are cytolytic or neurotoxic with its potency varying with the structure and site of action and are efficient in targeting different animals, such as insects, crustaceans and vertebrates. Sea anemones toxins include voltage-gated Na⁺ and K⁺ channels toxins, acid-sensing ion channel toxins, Cytolysins, toxins with Kunitz-type protease inhibitors activity and toxins with Phospholipase A2 activity. In this review we assessed the phylogentic relationships of sea anemone toxins, characterized such toxins, the genes encoding them and the toxins three-dimensional structures, further providing a state-of-the-art description of the procedures involved in the isolation and purification of bioactive toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bárbara Frazão
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Rua dos Bragas 177, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal; (B.F.); (V.V.)
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Rua dos Bragas 177, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal; (B.F.); (V.V.)
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Antunes
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Rua dos Bragas 177, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal; (B.F.); (V.V.)
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
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Isaeva MP, Chausova VE, Zelepuga EA, Guzev KV, Tabakmakher VM, Monastyrnaya MM, Kozlovskaya EP. A new multigene superfamily of Kunitz-type protease inhibitors from sea anemone Heteractis crispa. Peptides 2012; 34:88-97. [PMID: 22001835 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2011.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2011] [Revised: 09/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Despite a considerable number of publications devoted to isolation and physicochemical properties of protease inhibitors from sea anemones, virtually nothing is known about the structure of the genes, and the nature of their isoforms diversity. Using the PCR-based cloning approach we discovered the Kunitz-type multigene superfamily composed of distinct gene families (GS-, RG-, GG-, and GN-gene families). It has been identified only three full-length GS-transcripts indicating a much greater variety of Kunitz homologs in Heteractis crispa. We have examined an exon-intron structure of GS-genes; an open reading frame is interrupted by a single intron located at the middle of the signal peptide. 33 deduced mature GS-polypeptides have been categorized into three groups according to the nature of a P1 residue. Some of them corresponded to native Kunitz-type protease inhibitors earlier isolated from H. crispa. The deduced GS-polypeptide sequences demonstrated diverse charge distribution ranging from the local point charges forms to the overall positive ones. We have suggested that the GS-gene family has evolved through gene tandem duplication followed by adaptive divergence of the P1 residue in the reactive site selected for divergent functions in paralogs. The expansion of this Kunitz-type multigene superfamily during evolution is lineage-specific, providing the tropical sea anemone H. crispa with the ability to interact an increasing diversity of the preys and predators. Our results show that the Kunitz-type polypeptides are encoded by a multigene superfamily and realized via a combinatory Kunitz-type library in the H. crispa tentacles venom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina P Isaeva
- Far Eastern Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Primorskiy kray, Vladivostok, Russian Federation.
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Tkacheva ES, Leychenko EV, Monastyrnaya MM, Issaeva MP, Zelepuga EA, Anastuk SD, Dmitrenok PS, Kozlovskaya EP. New actinoporins from sea anemone Heteractis crispa: Cloning and functional expression. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2011; 76:1131-9. [DOI: 10.1134/s0006297911100063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Hu B, Guo W, Wang LH, Wang JG, Liu XY, Jiao BH. Purification and characterization of gigantoxin-4, a new actinoporin from the sea anemone Stichodactyla gigantea. Int J Biol Sci 2011; 7:729-39. [PMID: 21697999 PMCID: PMC3119845 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.7.729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2011] [Accepted: 05/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A new Cytolysin, termed as Gigantoxin-4, was isolated from the sea anemone Stichodactyla gigantea and found to be highly homologous with Cytolysin-3 (HMg III) from Heteractis magnifica, RTX-A from Radianthus macrodactylus, and Sticholysin-1 (St I) and Sticholysin-2 (St II) from Stichodactyla helianthus (homology 82%, 86%, 82% and 86% respectively). Its 20 N-terminal residues were identified and the full-length cDNA sequence was obtained by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Multiple sequence alignments with other Cytolysins of the actinoporin family clearly indicated that Gigantoxin-4 belongs to this protein family. SDS-PAGE electrophoresis showed that this new actinoporin had a molecular mass of about 19 kDa, and possessed a high hemolytic activity to human erythrocytes (HA50= 40 ng/ml), which was inhibited by pre-incubation with sphingomyelin (SM) or SM-cholesterol mixtures. Our in vivo experiments showed that Gigantoxin-4 had wide toxicity to the rat cardiovascular system and the respiratory system. A concentration of 30μg/kg Gigantoxin-4, i.v. produced a positive inotropic effect on the rat heart although final cardiovascular failure was inevitable, and 60μg/kg Gigantoxin-4 caused respiratory arrest rapidly resulting in rat death. HE staining indicated pathological changes in various organs and tissues after i.v. administration of Gigantoxin-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Hu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
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García-Ortega L, Alegre-Cebollada J, García-Linares S, Bruix M, Martínez-Del-Pozo A, Gavilanes JG. The behavior of sea anemone actinoporins at the water-membrane interface. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2011; 1808:2275-88. [PMID: 21621507 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2011.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2011] [Revised: 05/10/2011] [Accepted: 05/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Actinoporins constitute a group of small and basic α-pore forming toxins produced by sea anemones. They display high sequence identity and appear as multigene families. They show a singular behaviour at the water-membrane interface: In aqueous solution, actinoporins remain stably folded but, upon interaction with lipid bilayers, become integral membrane structures. These membranes contain sphingomyelin, display phase coexistence, or both. The water soluble structures of the actinoporins equinatoxin II (EqtII) and sticholysin II (StnII) are known in detail. The crystalline structure of a fragaceatoxin C (FraC) nonamer has been also determined. The three proteins fold as a β-sandwich motif flanked by two α-helices, one of them at the N-terminal end. Four regions seem to be especially important: A cluster of aromatic residues, a phosphocholine binding site, an array of basic amino acids, and the N-terminal α-helix. Initial binding of the soluble monomers to the membrane is accomplished by the cluster of aromatic amino acids, the array of basic residues, and the phosphocholine binding site. Then, the N-terminal α-helix detaches from the β-sandwich, extends, and lies parallel to the membrane. Simultaneously, oligomerization occurs. Finally, the extended N-terminal α-helix penetrates the membrane to build a toroidal pore. This model has been however recently challenged by the cryo-EM reconstruction of FraC bound to phospholipid vesicles. Actinoporins structural fold appears across all eukaryotic kingdoms in other functionally unrelated proteins. Many of these proteins neither bind to lipid membranes nor induce cell lysis. Finally, studies focusing on the therapeutic potential of actinoporins also abound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía García-Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Cloning of Complementary and Genomic DNAs Encoding Echotoxins, Proteinaceous Toxins from the Salivary Gland of Marine Gastropod Monoplex echo. Protein J 2010; 29:487-92. [DOI: 10.1007/s10930-010-9277-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Vassilevski AA, Kozlov SA, Grishin EV. Molecular diversity of spider venom. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2010; 74:1505-34. [PMID: 20210706 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297909130069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Spider venom, a factor that has played a decisive role in the evolution of one of the most successful groups of living organisms, is reviewed. Unique molecular diversity of venom components including substances of variable structure (from simple low molecular weight compounds to large multidomain proteins) with different functions is considered. Special attention is given to the structure, properties, and biosynthesis of toxins of polypeptide nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Vassilevski
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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Bellomio A, Morante K, Barlic A, Gutiérrez-Aguirre I, Viguera AR, González-Mañas JM. Purification, cloning and characterization of fragaceatoxin C, a novel actinoporin from the sea anemone Actinia fragacea. Toxicon 2009; 54:869-80. [PMID: 19563820 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2009] [Revised: 06/16/2009] [Accepted: 06/19/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Actinia fragacea is commonly called the "strawberry" anemone because of the distinctive yellow or green spots displayed on its red column. Its venom contains several haemolytic proteins with a molecular mass of approximately 20 kDa that can be separated by ion-exchange column chromatography. One of them was purified to homogeneity and was named fragaceatoxin C (FraC). Its 15 N-terminal residues were identified by Edman degradation and served to obtain its complete DNA coding sequence by RT-PCR. The coding region of FraC was amplified and cloned in the expression vector pBAT-4. Purified recombinant FraC consists of 179 amino acids and multiple sequence alignment with other actinoporins clearly indicates that FraC belongs to this protein family. The secondary structure, thermal stability and lytic activity of native and recombinant FraC were practically identical and exhibit the same basic features already described for equinatoxin-II and sticholysin-II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Augusto Bellomio
- Unidad de Biofísica (Centro Mixto CSIC-UPV/EHU) and Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad del País Vasco, Aptdo. 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain
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