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Koudatsu S, Masatani T, Konishi R, Asada M, Hakimi H, Kurokawa Y, Tomioku K, Kaneko O, Fujita A. Glycosphingolipid GM3 is localized in both exoplasmic and cytoplasmic leaflets of Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasite plasma membrane. Sci Rep 2021; 11:14890. [PMID: 34290278 PMCID: PMC8295280 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-94037-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipid rafts, sterol-rich and sphingolipid-rich microdomains on the plasma membrane are important in processes like cell signaling, adhesion, and protein and lipid transport. The virulence of many eukaryotic parasites is related to raft microdomains on the cell membrane. In the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins, which are important for invasion and are possible targets for vaccine development, are localized in the raft. However, rafts are poorly understood. We used quick-freezing and freeze-fracture immuno-electron microscopy to examine the localization of monosialotetrahexosylganglioside (GM1) and monosialodihexosylganglioside (GM3), putative raft microdomain components in P. falciparum and infected erythrocytes. This method immobilizes molecules in situ, minimizing artifacts. GM3 was localized in the exoplasmic (EF) and cytoplasmic leaflets (PF) of the parasite and the parasitophorous vacuole (PV) membranes, but solely in the EF of the infected erythrocyte membrane, as in the case for uninfected erythrocytes. Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2) was localized solely in the PF of erythrocyte, parasite, and PV membranes. This is the first time that GM3, the major component of raft microdomains, was found in the PF of a biological membrane. The unique localization of raft microdomains may be due to P. falciparum lipid metabolism and its unique biological processes, like protein transport from the parasite to infected erythrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiomi Koudatsu
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Basic Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan
| | - Tatsunori Masatani
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Research Center, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan.,Laboratory of Zoonotic Diseases, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu, 501-1193, Japan
| | - Rikako Konishi
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Basic Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan
| | - Masahito Asada
- Department of Protozoology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Sakamoto 1-12-4, Nagasaki, 852-8523, Japan.,National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, 080-8555, Japan
| | - Hassan Hakimi
- Department of Protozoology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Sakamoto 1-12-4, Nagasaki, 852-8523, Japan.,National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-cho, Obihiro, 080-8555, Japan
| | - Yuna Kurokawa
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Basic Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan
| | - Kanna Tomioku
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Basic Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan
| | - Osamu Kaneko
- Department of Protozoology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Sakamoto 1-12-4, Nagasaki, 852-8523, Japan
| | - Akikazu Fujita
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Basic Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan.
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Yadavalli R, Peterson JW, Drazba JA, Sam-Yellowe TY. Trafficking and Association of Plasmodium falciparum MC-2TM with the Maurer's Clefts. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10040431. [PMID: 33916455 PMCID: PMC8066109 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10040431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we investigated stage specific expression, trafficking, solubility and topology of endogenous PfMC-2TM in P. falciparum (3D7) infected erythrocytes. Following Brefeldin A (BFA) treatment of parasites, PfMC-2TM traffic was evaluated using immunofluorescence with antibodies reactive with PfMC-2TM. PfMC-2TM is sensitive to BFA treatment and permeabilization of infected erythrocytes with streptolysin O (SLO) and saponin, showed that the N and C-termini of PfMC-2TM are exposed to the erythrocyte cytoplasm with the central portion of the protein protected in the MC membranes. PfMC-2TM was expressed as early as 4 h post invasion (hpi), was tightly colocalized with REX-1 and trafficked to the erythrocyte membrane without a change in solubility. PfMC-2TM associated with the MC and infected erythrocyte membrane and was resistant to extraction with alkaline sodium carbonate, suggestive of protein-lipid interactions with membranes of the MC and erythrocyte. PfMC-2TM is an additional marker of the nascent MCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raghavendra Yadavalli
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH 44115, USA;
| | - John W. Peterson
- Imaging Core Facility, The Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (J.W.P.); (J.A.D.)
| | - Judith A. Drazba
- Imaging Core Facility, The Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; (J.W.P.); (J.A.D.)
| | - Tobili Y. Sam-Yellowe
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH 44115, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-216-687-2068
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The Plasmodium knowlesi MAHRP2 ortholog localizes to structures connecting Sinton Mulligan's clefts in the infected erythrocyte. Parasitol Int 2018; 67:481-492. [PMID: 29673877 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2018.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
During development within the host erythrocyte malaria parasites generate nascent membranous structures which serve as a pathway for parasite protein transport to modify the host cell. The molecular basis of such membranous structures is not well understood, particularly for malaria parasites other than Plasmodium falciparum. To characterize the structural basis of protein trafficking in the Plasmodium knowlesi-infected erythrocyte, we identified a P. knowlesi ortholog of MAHRP2, a marker of the tether structure that connects membranous structures in the P. falciparum-infected erythrocyte. We show that PkMAHRP2 localizes on amorphous structures that connect Sinton Mulligan's clefts (SMC) to each other and to the erythrocyte membrane. Three dimensional reconstruction of the P. knowlesi-infected erythrocyte revealed that the SMC is a plate-like structure with swollen ends, reminiscent of the morphology of the Golgi apparatus. The PkMAHRP2-localized amorphous structures are possibly functionally equivalent to P. falciparum tether structure. These findings suggest a conservation in the ultrastructure of protein trafficking between P. falciparum and P. knowlesi.
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A spiral scaffold underlies cytoadherent knobs in Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Blood 2015; 127:343-51. [PMID: 26637786 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2015-10-674002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Much of the virulence of Plasmodium falciparum malaria is caused by cytoadherence of infected erythrocytes, which promotes parasite survival by preventing clearance in the spleen. Adherence is mediated by membrane protrusions known as knobs, whose formation depends on the parasite-derived, knob-associated histidine-rich protein (KAHRP). Knobs are required for cytoadherence under flow conditions, and they contain both KAHRP and the parasite-derived erythrocyte membrane protein PfEMP1. Using electron tomography, we have examined the 3-dimensional structure of knobs in detergent-insoluble skeletons of P falciparum 3D7 schizonts. We describe a highly organized knob skeleton composed of a spiral structure coated by an electron-dense layer underlying the knob membrane. This knob skeleton is connected by multiple links to the erythrocyte cytoskeleton. We used immuno-electron microscopy (EM) to locate KAHRP in these structures. The arrangement of membrane proteins in the knobs, visualized by high-resolution freeze-fracture scanning EM, is distinct from that in the surrounding erythrocyte membrane, with a structure at the apex that likely represents the adhesion site. Thus, erythrocyte knobs in P falciparum infection contain a highly organized skeleton structure underlying a specialized region of membrane. We propose that the spiral and dense coat organize the cytoadherence structures in the knob, and anchor them into the erythrocyte cytoskeleton. The high density of knobs and their extensive mechanical linkage suggest an explanation for the rigidification of the cytoskeleton in infected cells, and for the transmission to the cytoskeleton of shear forces experienced by adhering cells.
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Defining the morphology and mechanism of the hemoglobin transport pathway in Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2015; 14:415-26. [PMID: 25724884 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00267-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 02/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Hemoglobin degradation during the asexual cycle of Plasmodium falciparum is an obligate process for parasite development and survival. It is established that hemoglobin is transported from the host erythrocyte to the parasite digestive vacuole (DV), but this biological process is not well characterized. Three-dimensional reconstructions made from serial thin-section electron micrographs of untreated, trophozoite-stage P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes (IRBC) or IRBC treated with different pharmacological agents provide new insight into the organization and regulation of the hemoglobin transport pathway. Hemoglobin internalization commences with the formation of cytostomes from localized, electron-dense collars at the interface of the parasite plasma and parasitophorous vacuolar membranes. The cytostomal collar does not function as a site of vesicle fission but rather serves to stabilize the maturing cytostome. We provide the first evidence that hemoglobin transport to the DV uses an actin-myosin motor system. Short-lived, hemoglobin-filled vesicles form from the distal end of the cytostomes through actin and dynamin-mediated processes. Results obtained with IRBC treated with N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) suggest that fusion of hemoglobin-containing vesicles with the DV may involve a soluble NEM-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor-dependent mechanism. In this report, we identify new key components of the hemoglobin transport pathway and provide a detailed characterization of its morphological organization and regulation.
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The conserved clag multigene family of malaria parasites: essential roles in host-pathogen interaction. Drug Resist Updat 2014; 18:47-54. [PMID: 25467627 DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2014.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The clag multigene family is strictly conserved in malaria parasites, but absent from neighboring genera of protozoan parasites. Early research pointed to roles in merozoite invasion and infected cell cytoadherence, but more recent studies have implicated channel-mediated uptake of ions and nutrients from host plasma. Here, we review the current understanding of this gene family, which appears to be central to host-parasite interactions and an important therapeutic target.
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Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of malaria, completely remodels the infected human erythrocyte to acquire nutrients and to evade the immune system. For this process, the parasite exports more than 10% of all its proteins into the host cell cytosol, including the major virulence factor PfEMP1 (P. falciparum erythrocyte surface protein 1). This unusual protein trafficking system involves long-known parasite-derived membranous structures in the host cell cytosol, called Maurer's clefts. However, the genesis, role, and function of Maurer's clefts remain elusive. Similarly unclear is how proteins are sorted and how they are transported to and from these structures. Recent years have seen a large increase of knowledge but, as yet, no functional model has been established. In this perspective we review the most important findings and conclude with potential possibilities to shed light into the enigma of Maurer's clefts. Understanding the mechanism and function of these structures, as well as their involvement in protein export in P. falciparum, might lead to innovative control strategies and might give us a handle with which to help to eliminate this deadly parasite.
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Pachlatko E, Rusch S, Müller A, Hemphill A, Tilley L, Hanssen E, Beck HP. MAHRP2, an exported protein of Plasmodium falciparum, is an essential component of Maurer's cleft tethers. Mol Microbiol 2011; 77:1136-52. [PMID: 20624222 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07278.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Upon invasion into erythrocytes, the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum must refurbish the host cell. The objective of this study was to elucidate the location and function of MAHRP2 in these processes. Using immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy we showed that the membrane-associated histidine-rich protein-2 (MAHRP2) is exported during this process to novel cylindrical structures in the erythrocyte cytoplasm. We hypothesize that these structures tether organelles known as Maurer's clefts to the erythrocyte skeleton. Live cell imaging of parasite transfectants expressing MAHRP2-GFP revealed both mobile and fixed populations of the tether-like structures. Differential centrifugation allowed the enrichment of these novel structures. MAHRP2 possesses neither a signal peptide nor a PEXEL motif, and sequences required for export were determined using transfectants expressing truncated MAHRP2 fragments. The first 15 amino acids and the histidine-rich N-terminal region are necessary for correct trafficking of MAHRP2 together with a predicted hydrophobic region. Solubilization studies showed that MAHRP2 is membrane associated but not membrane spanning. Several attempts to delete the mahrp2 gene failed, indicating that the protein is essential for parasite survival.
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Hanssen E, McMillan PJ, Tilley L. Cellular architecture of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Int J Parasitol 2010; 40:1127-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2010.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2010] [Revised: 04/15/2010] [Accepted: 04/15/2010] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Lisk G, Pain M, Sellers M, Gurnev PA, Pillai AD, Bezrukov SM, Desai SA. Altered plasmodial surface anion channel activity and in vitro resistance to permeating antimalarial compounds. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2010; 1798:1679-88. [PMID: 20451492 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2010.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2009] [Revised: 04/21/2010] [Accepted: 04/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Erythrocytes infected with malaria parasites have increased permeability to various solutes. These changes may be mediated by an unusual small conductance ion channel known as the plasmodial surface anion channel (PSAC). While channel activity benefits the parasite by permitting nutrient acquisition, it can also be detrimental because water-soluble antimalarials may more readily access their parasite targets via this channel. Recently, two such toxins, blasticidin S and leupeptin, were used to select mutant parasites with altered PSAC activities, suggesting acquired resistance via reduced channel-mediated toxin uptake. Surprisingly, although these toxins have similar structures and charge, we now show that reduced permeability of one does not protect the intracellular parasite from the other. Leupeptin accumulation in the blasticidin S-resistant mutant was relatively preserved, consistent with retained in vitro susceptibility to leupeptin. Subsequent in vitro selection with both toxins generated a double mutant parasite having additional changes in PSAC, implicating an antimalarial resistance mechanism for water-soluble drugs requiring channel-mediated uptake at the erythrocyte membrane. Characterization of these mutants revealed a single conserved channel on each mutant, albeit with distinct gating properties. These findings are consistent with a shared channel that mediates uptake of ions, nutrients and toxins. This channel's gating and selectivity properties can be modified in response to in vitro selective pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Godfrey Lisk
- The Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
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Coppens I, Sullivan DJ, Prigge ST. An update on the rapid advances in malaria parasite cell biology. Trends Parasitol 2010; 26:305-10. [PMID: 20382563 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2010.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2009] [Revised: 03/10/2010] [Accepted: 03/12/2010] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Recent years have seen rapid advances in our understanding of malaria parasite cell biology. Some of this progress has been the result of developments in genetic techniques, advances in imaging technology, and new molecular tools. We focus on three aspects of parasite cell biology: (i) plastid metabolism, (ii) sporozoite biology, and (iii) protein transport to and from the host erythrocyte. In each case recent work has led to a deeper understanding of parasite biology, often at the expense of previously accepted paradigms. These studies also highlight the impediments, technical and otherwise, that will have to be overcome for continued rapid progress in these fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Coppens
- Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Hanssen E, Goldie KN, Tilley L. Ultrastructure of the asexual blood stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Methods Cell Biol 2010; 96:93-116. [PMID: 20869520 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-679x(10)96005-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum is the most deadly of the human malaria parasites. The particular virulence of this species derives from its ability to subvert the physiology of its host during the blood stages of its development. The parasite grows and divides within erythrocytes, feeding on the hemoglobin, and remodeling its host cells so they adhere to blood vessel walls. The advent of molecular transfection technology, coupled with optical microscopy of fluorescent protein reporters, has greatly improved our understanding of the ways in which the malaria parasite alters its host cell. However, a full interpretation of the information from these studies requires similar advances in our knowledge of the ultrastructure of the parasite. Here we give an overview of different electron microscopy techniques that have revealed the fine structure of the parasite at different stages of development. We present data on some of the unusual organelles of P. falciparum, in particular, the membrane structures that are elaborated in the erythrocyte cytoplasm and are thought to play an important role in trafficking of virulence proteins. We present and discuss some of the exciting whole cell imaging techniques that represent a new frontier in the studies of parasite ultrastructure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Hanssen
- Electron Microscopy Unit, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
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Ribaut C, Reybier K, Reynes O, Launay J, Valentin A, Fabre PL, Nepveu F. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to study physiological changes affecting the red blood cell after invasion by malaria parasites. Biosens Bioelectron 2008; 24:2721-5. [PMID: 19167879 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2008.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2008] [Revised: 11/28/2008] [Accepted: 12/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, invades human erythrocytes and induces dramatic changes in the host cell. The idea of this work was to use RBC modified electrode to perform electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) with the aim of monitoring physiological changes affecting the erythrocyte after invasion by the malaria parasite. Impedance cell-based devices are potentially useful to give insight into cellular behavior and to detect morphological changes. The modelling of impedance plots (Nyquist diagram) in equivalent circuit taking into account the presence of the cellular layer, allowed us pointing out specific events associated with the development of the parasite such as (i) strong changes in the host cell cytoplasm illustrated by changes in the film capacity, (ii) perturbation of the ionic composition of the host cell illustrated by changes in the film resistance, (iii) releasing of reducer (lactic acid or heme) and an enhanced oxygen consumption characterized by changes in the charge transfer resistance and in the Warburg coefficient characteristic of the redox species diffusion. These results show that the RBC-based device may help to analyze strategic events in the malaria parasite development constituting a new tool in antimalarial research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clotilde Ribaut
- Université de Toulouse, UPS, INP, INSA, Laboratoire pharmacochimie des substances naturelles et pharmacophores redox, 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062 Toulouse cedex 9, France
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