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Muzykina L, Barrado-Gil L, Gonzalez-Bulnes A, Crespo-Piazuelo D, Cerón JJ, Alonso C, Montoya M. Overview of Modern Commercial Kits for Laboratory Diagnosis of African Swine Fever and Swine Influenza A Viruses. Viruses 2024; 16:505. [PMID: 38675848 PMCID: PMC11054272 DOI: 10.3390/v16040505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Rapid and early detection of infectious diseases in pigs is important, especially for the implementation of control measures in suspected cases of African swine fever (ASF), as an effective and safe vaccine is not yet available in most of the affected countries. Additionally, analysis for swine influenza is of significance due to its high morbidity rate (up to 100%) despite a lower mortality rate compared to ASF. The wide distribution of swine influenza A virus (SwIAV) across various countries, the emergence of constantly new recombinant strains, and the danger of human infection underscore the need for rapid and accurate diagnosis. Several diagnostic approaches and commercial methods should be applied depending on the scenario, type of sample and the objective of the studies being implemented. At the early diagnosis of an outbreak, virus genome detection using a variety of PCR assays proves to be the most sensitive and specific technique. As the disease evolves, serology gains diagnostic value, as specific antibodies appear later in the course of the disease (after 7-10 days post-infection (DPI) for ASF and between 10-21 DPI for SwIAV). The ongoing development of commercial kits with enhanced sensitivity and specificity is evident. This review aims to analyse recent advances and current commercial kits utilised for the diagnosis of ASF and SwIAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larysa Muzykina
- Molecular Biomedicine Department, The Margarita Salas Centre for Biological Research (CIB) of the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), C. Ramiro de Maeztu, 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Lucía Barrado-Gil
- Department of Biotechnology, INIA-CSIC, Centro Nacional Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Ctra. de la Coruña Km 7.5, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (L.B.-G.); (C.A.)
| | - Antonio Gonzalez-Bulnes
- R&D Department, Cuarte S.L., Grupo Jorge, Ctra. de Logroño km 9.2, Monzalbarba, 50120 Zaragoza, Spain; (A.G.-B.); (D.C.-P.)
| | - Daniel Crespo-Piazuelo
- R&D Department, Cuarte S.L., Grupo Jorge, Ctra. de Logroño km 9.2, Monzalbarba, 50120 Zaragoza, Spain; (A.G.-B.); (D.C.-P.)
| | - Jose Joaquin Cerón
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Clinical Analysis (Interlab-UMU), University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain;
| | - Covadonga Alonso
- Department of Biotechnology, INIA-CSIC, Centro Nacional Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Ctra. de la Coruña Km 7.5, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (L.B.-G.); (C.A.)
| | - María Montoya
- Molecular Biomedicine Department, The Margarita Salas Centre for Biological Research (CIB) of the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), C. Ramiro de Maeztu, 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
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Ryt-Hansen P, Krog JS, Breum SØ, Hjulsager CK, Pedersen AG, Trebbien R, Larsen LE. Co-circulation of multiple influenza A reassortants in swine harboring genes from seasonal human and swine influenza viruses. eLife 2021; 10:60940. [PMID: 34313225 PMCID: PMC8397370 DOI: 10.7554/elife.60940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the influenza pandemic in 2009, there has been an increased focus on swine influenza A virus (swIAV) surveillance. This paper describes the results of the surveillance of swIAV in Danish swine from 2011 to 2018. In total, 3800 submissions were received with a steady increase in swIAV-positive submissions, reaching 56% in 2018. Full-genome sequences were obtained from 129 swIAV-positive samples. Altogether, 17 different circulating genotypes were identified including six novel reassortants harboring human seasonal IAV gene segments. The phylogenetic analysis revealed substantial genetic drift and also evidence of positive selection occurring mainly in antigenic sites of the hemagglutinin protein and confirmed the presence of a swine divergent cluster among the H1pdm09Nx (clade 1A.3.3.2) viruses. The results provide essential data for the control of swIAV in pigs and emphasize the importance of contemporary surveillance for discovering novel swIAV strains posing a potential threat to the human population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Ryt-Hansen
- Technical University of Denmark, National Veterinary Institute, Lyngby, Denmark.,University of Copenhagen, Department of Health Sciences, Institute for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | | | | | | | - Anders Gorm Pedersen
- Department of Health Technology, Section for Bioinformatics, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Lars Erik Larsen
- Technical University of Denmark, National Veterinary Institute, Lyngby, Denmark.,University of Copenhagen, Department of Health Sciences, Institute for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Frederiksberg, Denmark
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Genetic and Antigenic Evolution of European Swine Influenza A Viruses of HA-1C (Avian-Like) and HA-1B (Human-Like) Lineages in France from 2000 to 2018. Viruses 2020; 12:v12111304. [PMID: 33202972 PMCID: PMC7697621 DOI: 10.3390/v12111304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This study evaluated the genetic and antigenic evolution of swine influenza A viruses (swIAV) of the two main enzootic H1 lineages, i.e., HA-1C (H1av) and -1B (H1hu), circulating in France between 2000 and 2018. SwIAV RNAs extracted from 1220 swine nasal swabs were hemagglutinin/neuraminidase (HA/NA) subtyped by RT-qPCRs, and 293 virus isolates were sequenced. In addition, 146 H1avNy and 105 H1huNy strains were submitted to hemagglutination inhibition tests. H1avN1 (66.5%) and H1huN2 (25.4%) subtypes were predominant. Most H1 strains belonged to HA-1C.2.1 or -1B.1.2.3 clades, but HA-1C.2, -1C.2.2, -1C.2.3, -1B.1.1, and -1B.1.2.1 clades were also detected sporadically. Within HA-1B.1.2.3 clade, a group of strains named "Δ146-147" harbored several amino acid mutations and a double deletion in HA, that led to a marked antigenic drift. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that internal segments belonged mainly to the "Eurasian avian-like lineage", with two distinct genogroups for the M segment. In total, 17 distinct genotypes were identified within the study period. Reassortments of H1av/H1hu strains with H1N1pdm virus were rarely evidenced until 2018. Analysis of amino acid sequences predicted a variability in length of PB1-F2 and PA-X proteins and identified the appearance of several mutations in PB1, PB1-F2, PA, NP and NS1 proteins that could be linked to virulence, while markers for antiviral resistance were identified in N1 and N2. Altogether, diversity and evolution of swIAV recall the importance of disrupting the spreading of swIAV within and between pig herds, as well as IAV inter-species transmissions.
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4
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Deblanc C, Quéguiner S, Gorin S, Chastagner A, Hervé S, Paboeuf F, Simon G. Evaluation of the Pathogenicity and the Escape from Vaccine Protection of a New Antigenic Variant Derived from the European Human-Like Reassortant Swine H1N2 Influenza Virus. Viruses 2020; 12:E1155. [PMID: 33053905 PMCID: PMC7599989 DOI: 10.3390/v12101155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The surveillance of swine influenza A viruses in France revealed the emergence of an antigenic variant following deletions and mutations that are fixed in the HA-encoding gene of the European human-like reassortant swine H1N2 lineage. In this study, we compared the outcomes of the parental (H1huN2) and variant (H1huN2Δ146-147) virus infections in experimentally-inoculated piglets. Moreover, we assessed and compared the protection that was conferred by an inactivated vaccine currently licensed in Europe. Three groups of five unvaccinated or vaccinated piglets were inoculated with H1huN2 or H1huN2Δ146-147 or mock-inoculated, respectively. In unvaccinated piglets, the variant strain induced greater clinical signs than the parental virus, in relation to a higher inflammatory response that involves TNF-α production and a huge afflux of granulocytes into the lung. However, both infections led to similar levels of virus excretion and adaptive (humoral and cellular) immune responses in blood. The vaccinated animals were clinically protected from both infectious challenges and did not exhibit any inflammatory responses, regardless the inoculated virus. However, whereas vaccination prevented virus shedding in H1huN2-infected animals, it did not completely inhibit the multiplication of the variant strain, since live virus particles were detected in nasal secretions that were taken from H1huN2Δ146-147-inoculated vaccinated piglets. This difference in the level of vaccine protection was probably related to the poorer ability of the post-vaccine antibodies to neutralize the variant virus than the parental virus, even though post-vaccine cellular immunity appeared to be equally effective against both viruses. These results suggest that vaccine antigens would potentially need to be updated if this variant becomes established in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Deblanc
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 22440 Ploufragan, France; (S.Q.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (S.H.); (G.S.)
| | - Stéphane Quéguiner
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 22440 Ploufragan, France; (S.Q.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (S.H.); (G.S.)
| | - Stéphane Gorin
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 22440 Ploufragan, France; (S.Q.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (S.H.); (G.S.)
| | - Amélie Chastagner
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 22440 Ploufragan, France; (S.Q.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (S.H.); (G.S.)
| | - Séverine Hervé
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 22440 Ploufragan, France; (S.Q.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (S.H.); (G.S.)
| | - Frédéric Paboeuf
- SPF Pig Production and Experimentation, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 22440 Ploufragan, France;
| | - Gaëlle Simon
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), 22440 Ploufragan, France; (S.Q.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (S.H.); (G.S.)
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5
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Cocirculation of Swine H1N1 Influenza A Virus Lineages in Germany. Viruses 2020; 12:v12070762. [PMID: 32679903 PMCID: PMC7411773 DOI: 10.3390/v12070762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The genome analysis of 328 H1N1 swine influenza virus isolates collected in a 13-year long-term swine influenza surveillance in Germany is reported. Viral genomes were sequenced with the Illumina next-generation sequencing technique and conventional Sanger methods. Phylogenetic analyses were conducted with Bayesian tree inference. The results indicate continued prevalence of Eurasian avian swine H1N1 but also emergence of a novel H1N1 reassortant, named Schneiderkrug/2013-like swine H1N1, with human-like hemagglutinin and avian-like neuraminidase and internal genes. Additionally, the evolution of an antigenic drift variant of A (H1N1) pdm09 was observed, named Wachtum/2014-like swine H1N1. Both variants were first isolated in northwest Germany, spread to neighboring German states and reached greater proportions of the H1N1 isolates of 2014 and 2015. The upsurge of Wachtum/2014-like swine H1N1 is of interest as this is the first documented persistent swine-to-swine spread of A (H1N1) pdm09 in Germany associated with antigenic variation. Present enzootic swine influenza viruses in Germany now include two or more co-circulating, antigenically variant viruses of each of the subtypes, H1N1 and H1N2.
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6
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Sobolev I, Kurskaya O, Leonov S, Kabilov M, Alikina T, Alekseev A, Yushkov Y, Saito T, Uchida Y, Mine J, Shestopalov A, Sharshov K. Novel reassortant of H1N1 swine influenza virus detected in pig population in Russia. Emerg Microbes Infect 2020; 8:1456-1464. [PMID: 31603050 PMCID: PMC6818105 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2019.1673136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Pigs play an important role in interspecies transmission of the influenza virus, particularly as "mixing vessels" for reassortment. Two influenza A/H1N1 virus strains, A/swine/Siberia/1sw/2016 and A/swine/Siberia/4sw/2017, were isolated during a surveillance of pigs from private farms in Russia from 2016 to 2017. There was a 10% identity difference between the HA and NA nucleotide sequences of isolated strains and the most phylogenetically related sequences (human influenza viruses of 1980s). Simultaneously, genome segments encoding internal proteins were found to be phylogenetically related to the A/H1N1pdm09 influenza virus. In addition, two amino acids (129-130) were deleted in the HA of A/swine/Siberia/4sw/2017 compared to that of A/swine/Siberia/1sw/2016 HA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Sobolev
- Department of Experimental Modeling and Pathogenesis of Infectious Diseases, Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine , Novosibirsk , Russia
| | - Olga Kurskaya
- Department of Experimental Modeling and Pathogenesis of Infectious Diseases, Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine , Novosibirsk , Russia
| | - Sergey Leonov
- Siberian Federal Scientific Centre of Agro- BioTechnologies , Krasnoobsk , Russia
| | - Marsel Kabilov
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine , Novosibirsk , Russia
| | - Tatyana Alikina
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine , Novosibirsk , Russia
| | - Alexander Alekseev
- Department of Experimental Modeling and Pathogenesis of Infectious Diseases, Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine , Novosibirsk , Russia
| | - Yuriy Yushkov
- Siberian Federal Scientific Centre of Agro- BioTechnologies , Krasnoobsk , Russia
| | - Takehiko Saito
- Division of Transboundary Animal Disease, National Institute of Animal Health , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Yuko Uchida
- Division of Transboundary Animal Disease, National Institute of Animal Health , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Junki Mine
- Division of Transboundary Animal Disease, National Institute of Animal Health , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Alexander Shestopalov
- Department of Experimental Modeling and Pathogenesis of Infectious Diseases, Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine , Novosibirsk , Russia
| | - Kirill Sharshov
- Department of Experimental Modeling and Pathogenesis of Infectious Diseases, Federal Research Center of Fundamental and Translational Medicine , Novosibirsk , Russia
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7
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Zell R, Groth M, Krumbholz A, Lange J, Philipps A, Dürrwald R. Displacement of the Gent/1999 human-like swine H1N2 influenza A virus lineage by novel H1N2 reassortants in Germany. Arch Virol 2019; 165:55-67. [PMID: 31696308 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-019-04457-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A swine influenza survey was conducted between 2003 and 2015 in Germany. During this period, 8122 snout swabs or other respiratory specimens from pigs of 5178 herds, mainly from Germany, were investigated for the presence of swine influenza A virus (S-IAV). In total, 1310 S-IAV isolates were collected. Of this collection, the complete genome of 267 H1N2 S-IAV isolates was sequenced and phylogenetically analyzed. The data demonstrate the incursion of human-like swine H1N2 viruses (Gent/1999-like) in 2000 and prevalent circulation until 2010. From 2008 onward, a sustained and broad change of the genetic constellation of the swine H1N2 subtype commenced. The Gent/1999-like swine H1N2 viruses ceased and several new swine H1N2 reassortants emerged and became prevalent in Germany. Of these, the upsurge of the Diepholz/2008-like, Emmelsbuell/2009-like and Papenburg/2010-like viruses is notable. The data reveal the importance of reassortment events in S-IAV evolution. The strong circulation of S-IAV of different lineages in the swine population throughout the year underlines that pigs are important reservoir hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Zell
- Section of Experimental Virology, Institute for Medical Microbiology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07745, Jena, Germany.
| | - Marco Groth
- CF DNA Sequencing, Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Andi Krumbholz
- Section of Experimental Virology, Institute for Medical Microbiology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07745, Jena, Germany.,Institute of Infection Medicine, Kiel University and University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, 24105, Kiel, Germany
| | - Jeannette Lange
- Section of Experimental Virology, Institute for Medical Microbiology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07745, Jena, Germany.,Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225, Langen, Germany
| | - Anja Philipps
- Section of Experimental Virology, Institute for Medical Microbiology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07745, Jena, Germany.,Thermo Fisher Scientific GENEART GmbH, 93059, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ralf Dürrwald
- Section of Experimental Virology, Institute for Medical Microbiology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07745, Jena, Germany.,Robert Koch Institute, 13353, Berlin, Germany
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8
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Chastagner A, Bonin E, Fablet C, Quéguiner S, Hirchaud E, Lucas P, Gorin S, Barbier N, Béven V, Garin E, Blanchard Y, Rose N, Hervé S, Simon G. Virus persistence in pig herds led to successive reassortment events between swine and human influenza A viruses, resulting in the emergence of a novel triple-reassortant swine influenza virus. Vet Res 2019; 50:77. [PMID: 31590684 PMCID: PMC6781375 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-019-0699-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This report describes the detection of a triple reassortant swine influenza A virus of H1avN2 subtype. It evolved from an avian-like swine H1avN1 that first acquired the N2 segment from a seasonal H3N2, then the M segment from a 2009 pandemic H1N1, in two reassortments estimated to have occurred 10 years apart. This study illustrates how recurrent influenza infections increase the co-infection risk and facilitate evolutionary jumps by successive gene exchanges. It recalls the importance of appropriate biosecurity measures inside holdings to limit virus persistence and interspecies transmissions, which both contribute to the emergence of new potentially zoonotic viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amélie Chastagner
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France
| | - Emilie Bonin
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France.,INRA, US 1426, GeT-PlaGe, 24 chemin de borde rouge - Auzeville, CS 52627, 31326, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Christelle Fablet
- Epidemiology, Health and Welfare Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France
| | - Stéphane Quéguiner
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France
| | - Edouard Hirchaud
- Viral Genetic and Biosecurity Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France
| | - Pierrick Lucas
- Viral Genetic and Biosecurity Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France
| | - Stéphane Gorin
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France
| | - Nicolas Barbier
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France
| | - Véronique Béven
- Viral Genetic and Biosecurity Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France
| | - Emmanuel Garin
- Animal Health Service, Coop de France, 43 Rue Sedaine, 75538, Paris cedex 11, France.,Operational Team, ESA Platform, 31 Avenue Garnier, 69007, Lyon, France.,GDS-France, 37 Rue de Lyon, 75012, Paris, France
| | - Yannick Blanchard
- Viral Genetic and Biosecurity Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France
| | - Nicolas Rose
- Epidemiology, Health and Welfare Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France
| | - Séverine Hervé
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France
| | - Gaëlle Simon
- Swine Virology Immunology Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, ANSES, BP53, 22440, Ploufragan, France. .,Bretagne Loire University, Cité internationale, 1 place Paul Ricoeur, CS 54417, 35044, Rennes, France.
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9
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Takemae N, Nguyen PT, Le VT, Nguyen TN, To TL, Nguyen TD, Pham VP, Vo HV, Le QVT, Do HT, Nguyen DT, Uchida Y, Saito T. Appearance of reassortant European avian-origin H1 influenza A viruses of swine in Vietnam. Transbound Emerg Dis 2018; 65:1110-1116. [PMID: 29512309 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Three subtypes-H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2-of influenza A viruses of swine (IAVs-S) are currently endemic in swine worldwide, but there is considerable genotypic diversity among each subtype and limited geographical distribution. Through IAVs-S monitoring in Vietnam, two H1N2 influenza A viruses were isolated from healthy pigs in Ba Ria-Vung Tau Province, Southern Vietnam, on 2 December 2016. BLAST and phylogenetic analyses revealed that their HA and NA genes were derived from those of European avian-like H1N2 IAVs-S that contained avian-origin H1 and human-like N2 genes, and were particularly closely related to those of IAVs-S circulating in the Netherlands, Germany or Denmark. In addition, the internal genes of these Vietnamese isolates were derived from human A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses, suggesting that the Vietnamese H1N2 IAVs-S are reassortants between European H1N2 IAVs-S and human A(H1N1)pdm09v. The appearance of European avian-like H1N2 IAVs-S in Vietnam marks their first transmission outside Europe. Our results and statistical analyses of the number of live pigs imported into Vietnam suggest that the European avian-like H1N2 IAVs-S may have been introduced into Vietnam with their hosts through international trade. These findings highlight the importance of quarantining imported pigs to impede the introduction of new IAVs-S.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Takemae
- Division of Transboundary Animal Disease, National Institute of Animal Health, NARO, Tsukuba, Japan
- Thailand-Japan Zoonotic Diseases Collaboration Center, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - P T Nguyen
- Regional Animal Health Office No. 6, Department of Animal Health, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - V T Le
- Regional Animal Health Office No. 6, Department of Animal Health, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - T N Nguyen
- Epidemiology Division, Department of Animal Health, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - T L To
- National Centre for Veterinary Diagnostics, Department of Animal Health, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - T D Nguyen
- National Centre for Veterinary Diagnostics, Department of Animal Health, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - V P Pham
- Regional Animal Health Office No. 6, Department of Animal Health, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - H V Vo
- Regional Animal Health Office No. 6, Department of Animal Health, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Q V T Le
- Regional Animal Health Office No. 6, Department of Animal Health, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - H T Do
- National Centre for Veterinary Diagnostics, Department of Animal Health, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - D T Nguyen
- Epidemiology Division, Department of Animal Health, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Y Uchida
- Division of Transboundary Animal Disease, National Institute of Animal Health, NARO, Tsukuba, Japan
- Thailand-Japan Zoonotic Diseases Collaboration Center, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - T Saito
- Division of Transboundary Animal Disease, National Institute of Animal Health, NARO, Tsukuba, Japan
- Thailand-Japan Zoonotic Diseases Collaboration Center, Bangkok, Thailand
- United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
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10
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Bonin E, Quéguiner S, Woudstra C, Gorin S, Barbier N, Harder TC, Fach P, Hervé S, Simon G. Molecular subtyping of European swine influenza viruses and scaling to high-throughput analysis. Virol J 2018; 15:7. [PMID: 29316958 PMCID: PMC5761149 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-018-0920-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Swine influenza is a respiratory infection of pigs that may have a significant economic impact in affected herds and pose a threat to the human population since swine influenza A viruses (swIAVs) are zoonotic pathogens. Due to the increasing genetic diversity of swIAVs and because novel reassortants or variants may become enzootic or have zoonotic implications, surveillance is strongly encouraged. Therefore, diagnostic tests and advanced technologies able to identify the circulating strains rapidly are critically important. RESULTS Several reverse transcription real-time PCR assays (RT-qPCRs) were developed to subtype European swIAVs in clinical samples previously identified as containing IAV genome. The RT-qPCRs aimed to discriminate HA genes of four H1 genetic lineages (H1av, H1hu, H1huΔ146-147, H1pdm) and one H3 lineage, and NA genes of two N1 lineages (N1, N1pdm) and one N2 lineage. After individual validation, each RT-qPCR was adapted to high-throughput analyses in parallel to the amplification of the IAV M gene (target for IAV detection) and the β-actin gene (as an internal control), in order to test the ten target genes simultaneously on a large number of clinical samples, using low volumes of reagents and RNA extracts. CONCLUSION The RT-qPCRs dedicated to IAV molecular subtyping enabled the identification of swIAVs from the four viral subtypes that are known to be enzootic in European pigs, i.e. H1avN1, H1huN2, H3N2 and H1N1pdm. They also made it possible to discriminate a new antigenic variant (H1huN2Δ146-147) among H1huN2 viruses, as well as reassortant viruses, such as H1huN1 or H1avN2 for example, and virus mixtures. These PCR techniques exhibited a gain in sensitivity as compared to end-point RT-PCRs, enabling the characterization of biological samples with low genetic loads, with considerable time saving. Adaptation to high-throughput analyses appeared effective, both in terms of specificity and sensitivity. This new development opens novel perspectives in diagnostic capacities that could be very useful for swIAV surveillance and large-scale epidemiological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Bonin
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Swine Virology Immunology Unit, National Reference Laboratory for Swine Influenza, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Rennes, France.,Current address: INRA, US 1426, GeT-PlaGe, Genotoul, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Stéphane Quéguiner
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Swine Virology Immunology Unit, National Reference Laboratory for Swine Influenza, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Rennes, France
| | - Cédric Woudstra
- ANSES, Laboratory for Food Safety, IdentyPath Platform, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Stéphane Gorin
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Swine Virology Immunology Unit, National Reference Laboratory for Swine Influenza, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Rennes, France
| | - Nicolas Barbier
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Swine Virology Immunology Unit, National Reference Laboratory for Swine Influenza, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Rennes, France
| | - Timm C Harder
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler Institute, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Patrick Fach
- ANSES, Laboratory for Food Safety, IdentyPath Platform, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Séverine Hervé
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Swine Virology Immunology Unit, National Reference Laboratory for Swine Influenza, Ploufragan, France.,Bretagne Loire University, Rennes, France
| | - Gaëlle Simon
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Swine Virology Immunology Unit, National Reference Laboratory for Swine Influenza, Ploufragan, France. .,Bretagne Loire University, Rennes, France.
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11
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Beato MS, Tassoni L, Milani A, Salviato A, Di Martino G, Mion M, Bonfanti L, Monne I, Watson SJ, Fusaro A. Circulation of multiple genotypes of H1N2 viruses in a swine farm in Italy over a two-month period. Vet Microbiol 2016; 195:25-29. [PMID: 27771067 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Revised: 08/12/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
In August 2012 repeated respiratory outbreaks caused by swine influenza A virus (swIAV) were registered for a whole year in a breeding farm in northeast Italy that supplied piglets for fattening. The virus, initially characterized in the farm, was a reassortant Eurasian avian-like H1N1 (H1avN1) genotype, containing a haemagglutinin segment derived from the pandemic H1N1 (A(H1N1)pdm09) lineage. To control infection, a vaccination program using vaccines against the A(H1N1)pdm09, human-like H1N2 (H1huN2), human-like H3N2 (H3N2), and H1avN1 viruses was implemented in sows in November 2013. Vaccine efficacy was assessed by sampling nasal swabs for two months in 35-75 day-old piglets born from vaccinated sows. Complete genome sequencing of eight swIAV-positive nasal swabs collected longitudinally from piglets after the implementation of the vaccination program was conducted to investigate the virus characteristics. Over the two-month period, two different genotypes involving multiple reassortment events were detected. The unexpected circulation of multiple reassortant genotypes in such a short time highlights the complexity of the genetic diversity of swIAV and the need for a better surveillance plan, based on the combination of clinical signs, epidemiological data and whole genome characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Serena Beato
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, PD, Italy.
| | - Luca Tassoni
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Adelaide Milani
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Annalisa Salviato
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Guido Di Martino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Monica Mion
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Lebana Bonfanti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Isabella Monne
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | | | - Alice Fusaro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, PD, Italy
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12
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Schmidt C, Cibulski SP, Andrade CP, Teixeira TF, Varela APM, Scheffer CM, Franco AC, de Almeida LL, Roehe PM. Swine Influenza Virus and Association with the Porcine Respiratory Disease Complex in Pig Farms in Southern Brazil. Zoonoses Public Health 2015; 63:234-40. [PMID: 26302164 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Despite the putative endemic status of swine influenza A virus (swIAV) infections, data on the occurrence of swine influenza outbreaks are scarce in Brazil. The aim of this study was to detect and subtype swIAVs from six outbreaks of porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC) in southern Brazil. Nasal swabs were collected from 66 piglets with signs of respiratory disease in six herds. Lung tissue samples were collected from six necropsied animals. Virus detection was performed by PCR screening and confirmed by virus isolation and hemagglutination (HA). Influenza A subtyping was performed by a real-time reverse transcriptase PCR (rRT-PCR) to detect the A(H1N1)pdm09; other swIAV subtypes were determined by multiplex RT-PCR. In lung tissues, the major bacterial and viral pathogens associated with PRDC (Pasteurella multocida, Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Haemophilus parasuis and PCV2) were investigated. In some affected pigs, clinico-pathological evaluations were conducted. Influenza A was detected by screening PCR in 46 of 66 swab samples and from five of six lungs. Virus was recovered from pigs of all six herds. Subtype A(H1N1)pdm09 was detected in four of six herds and H1N2 in the other two herds. In lung tissues, further agents involved in PRDC were detected in all cases; Pasteurella multocida was identified in five of six samples and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae in three of six. Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (1/6), Haemophilus parasuis (1/6) and PCV2 (1/6) were also detected. These findings indicate that subtypes A(H1N1)pdm09 and H1N2 were present in pigs in southern Brazil and were associated with PRDC outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Schmidt
- Virology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.,Fepagro Animal Health -Institute of Veterinary Research Desidério Finamor (IPVDF), Eldorado do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - S P Cibulski
- Virology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.,Fepagro Animal Health -Institute of Veterinary Research Desidério Finamor (IPVDF), Eldorado do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - C P Andrade
- Pathology Laboratory, Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - T F Teixeira
- Fepagro Animal Health -Institute of Veterinary Research Desidério Finamor (IPVDF), Eldorado do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - A P M Varela
- Fepagro Animal Health -Institute of Veterinary Research Desidério Finamor (IPVDF), Eldorado do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - C M Scheffer
- Virology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.,Fepagro Animal Health -Institute of Veterinary Research Desidério Finamor (IPVDF), Eldorado do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - A C Franco
- Virology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - L L de Almeida
- Fepagro Animal Health -Institute of Veterinary Research Desidério Finamor (IPVDF), Eldorado do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - P M Roehe
- Virology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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13
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Amorim AR, Fornells LAMG, Reis FDC, Rezende DJ, Mendes GDS, Couceiro JNDSS, Santos NSDO. Influenza A virus infection of healthy piglets in an abattoir in Brazil: animal-human interface and risk for interspecies transmission. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2014; 108:548-53. [PMID: 23903968 PMCID: PMC3970599 DOI: 10.1590/0074-0276108052013003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Accepted: 04/30/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Asymptomatic influenza virus infections in pigs are frequent and the
lack of measures for controlling viral spread facilitates the circulation of
different virus strains between pigs. The goal of this study was to demonstrate
the circulation of influenza A virus strains among asymptomatic piglets in an
abattoir in Brazil and discuss the potential public health impacts. Tracheal
samples (n = 330) were collected from asymptomatic animals by a veterinarian
that also performed visual lung tissue examinations. No slaughtered animals
presented with any noticeable macroscopic signs of influenza infection following
examination of lung tissues. Samples were then analysed by reverse
transcription-polymerase chain reaction that resulted in the identification of
30 (9%) influenza A positive samples. The presence of asymptomatic pig
infections suggested that these animals could facilitate virus dissemination and
act as a source of infection for the herd, thereby enabling the emergence of
influenza outbreaks associated with significant economic losses. Furthermore,
the continuous exposure of the farm and abattoir workers to the virus increases
the risk for interspecies transmission. Monitoring measures of swine influenza
virus infections and vaccination and monitoring of employees for influenza
infection should also be considered. In addition regulatory agencies should
consider the public health ramifications regarding the potential zoonotic viral
transmission between humans and pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariane Ribeiro Amorim
- Instituto de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
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14
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Chiapponi C, Baioni L, Luppi A, Moreno A, Castellan A, Foni E. Temporal insight into the natural generation of a new reassortant porcine influenza virus in a swine holding. Vet Microbiol 2014; 174:9-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2014.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Revised: 08/18/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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15
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Metreveli G, Gao Q, Mena I, Schmolke M, Berg M, Albrecht RA, García-Sastre A. The origin of the PB1 segment of swine influenza A virus subtype H1N2 determines viral pathogenicity in mice. Virus Res 2014; 188:97-102. [PMID: 24726997 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2013] [Revised: 03/15/2014] [Accepted: 03/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Swine appear to be a key species in the generation of novel human influenza pandemics. Previous pandemic viruses are postulated to have evolved in swine by reassortment of avian, human, and swine influenza viruses. The human pandemic influenza viruses that emerged in 1957 and 1968 as well as swine viruses circulating since 1998 encode PB1 segments derived from avian influenza viruses. Here we investigate the possible role in viral replication and virulence of the PB1 gene segments present in two swine H1N2 influenza A viruses, A/swine/Sweden/1021/2009(H1N2) (sw 1021) and A/swine/Sweden/9706/2010(H1N2) (sw 9706), where the sw 1021 virus has shown to be more pathogenic in mice. By using reverse genetics, we swapped the PB1 genes of these two viruses. Similar to the sw 9706 virus, chimeric sw 1021 virus carrying the sw 9706 PB1 gene was not virulent in mice. In contrast, replacement of the PB1 gene of the sw 9706 virus by that from sw 1021 virus resulted in increased pathogenicity. Our study demonstrated that differences in virulence of swine influenza virus subtype H1N2 are attributed at least in part to the PB1 segment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgi Metreveli
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Qinshan Gao
- Bovine Biologics Research VMRD Zoetis, 333 Portage Street, KZO-300-206.5B, Kalamazoo, MI 49007, USA
| | - Ignacio Mena
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mirco Schmolke
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mikael Berg
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Randy A Albrecht
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Adolfo García-Sastre
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
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16
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Baratelli M, Córdoba L, Pérez LJ, Maldonado J, Fraile L, Núñez JI, Montoya M. Genetic characterization of influenza A viruses circulating in pigs and isolated in north-east Spain during the period 2006–2007. Res Vet Sci 2014; 96:380-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2013.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Revised: 11/29/2013] [Accepted: 12/06/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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17
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Foni E, Garbarino C, Chiapponi C, Baioni L, Zanni I, Cordioli P. Epidemiological survey of swine influenza A virus in the wild boar population of two Italian provinces. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2013; 7 Suppl 4:16-20. [PMID: 24224815 PMCID: PMC5655886 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES An epidemiological survey was carried out in order to obtain a better understanding of the role of wild boars in the epidemiology of the influenza virus. DESIGN The samples were submitted to Real-Time PCR testing for gene M of the swine influenza virus (SIV), and virus isolation was performed from the positive PCR samples. Genome sequence analysis was performed on the isolates. Additionally, 1,977 boar sera samples were analyzed using ELISA and hemoagglutination inhibition. SETTING Over recent years, the wild boar population has greatly increased in Italy, including in areas of high-density industrial pig farming, where the influenza virus is widespread. From July to December 2012, wild boar lung samples were collected in the Parma and Piacenza area, in the Emilia Romagna region. SAMPLE 354 wild boar lung samples were collected. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Wild-boar influenza A virus infection should be studied more broadly in order to obtain a better understanding of the epidemiological role played by this species. RESULTS Three SIV strains were isolated out of 12 samples that resulted positive using PCR analysis and they were identified as avian-like SIV subtype H1N1. Phylogenetic analysis of the sequences obtained from isolate A/wild boar/291320/2012 showed that it clustered with recent Italian avian-like H1N1 SIVs isolated from domestic pigs. Sixty-eight sera samples showed a positive titer to the isolate A/wild boar/291320/2012. CONCLUSIONS This study suggests that SIV actively circulates in the wild boar population in the investigated. area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Foni
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Swine InfluenzaIstituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia ed Emilia RomagnaParmaItaly
| | - Chiara Garbarino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia ed Emilia RomagnaPiacenzaItaly
| | - Chiara Chiapponi
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Swine InfluenzaIstituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia ed Emilia RomagnaParmaItaly
| | - Laura Baioni
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Swine InfluenzaIstituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia ed Emilia RomagnaParmaItaly
| | - Irene Zanni
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Swine InfluenzaIstituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia ed Emilia RomagnaParmaItaly
| | - Paolo Cordioli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia ed Emilia RomagnaBresciaItaly
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Moreno A, Gabanelli E, Sozzi E, Lelli D, Chiapponi C, Ciccozzi M, Zehender G, Cordioli P. Different evolutionary trends of swine H1N2 influenza viruses in Italy compared to European viruses. Vet Res 2013; 44:112. [PMID: 24289094 PMCID: PMC4176092 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
European H1N2 swine influenza viruses (EU H1N2SIVs) arose from multiple reassortment events among human H1N1, human H3N2, and avian influenza viruses. We investigated the evolutionary dynamics of 53 Italian H1N2 strains by comparing them with EU H1N2 SIVs. Hemagglutinin (HA) phylogeny revealed Italian strains fell into four groups: Group A and B (41 strains) had a human H1 similar to EU H1N2SIVs, which probably originated in 1986. However Group B (38 strains) formed a subgroup that had a two-amino acid deletion at positions 146/147 in HA. Group C (11 strains) contained an avian H1 that probably originated in 1996, and Group D (1 strain) had an H1 characteristic of the 2009 pandemic strain. Neuraminidase (NA) phylogeny suggested a series of genomic reassortments had occurred. Group A had an N2 that originated from human H3N2 in the late 1970s. Group B had different human N2 that most likely arose from a reassortment with the more recent human H3N2 virus, which probably occurred in 2000. Group C had an avian-like H1 combined with an N2 gene from one of EU H1N2SIVs, EU H3N2SIVs or Human H3N2. Group D was part of the EU H3N2SIVs clade. Although selection pressure for HA and NA was low, several positively selected sites were identified in both proteins, some of which were antigenic, suggesting selection influenced the evolution of SIV. The data highlight different evolutionary trends between European viruses and currently circulating Italian B strains and show the establishment of reassortant strains involving human viruses in Italian pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Moreno
- Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia ed Emilia Romagna, Via Bianchi, 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Elena Gabanelli
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, University of Milan, Ospedale Luigi Sacco Azienda Ospedaliera Polo Universitario, Via G.B. Grassi, 74, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Enrica Sozzi
- Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia ed Emilia Romagna, Via Bianchi, 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Davide Lelli
- Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia ed Emilia Romagna, Via Bianchi, 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Chiara Chiapponi
- Diagnostic Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia ed Emilia Romagna, Via dei Mercati, 13A, 43100 Parma, Italy
| | - Massimo Ciccozzi
- Department of Infectious, Parasitic, and Immunomediated Disease, National Institute of Health, V.le Regina Elena, 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Gianguglielmo Zehender
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, University of Milan, Ospedale Luigi Sacco Azienda Ospedaliera Polo Universitario, Via G.B. Grassi, 74, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Cordioli
- Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia ed Emilia Romagna, Via Bianchi, 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
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19
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Meng F, Punyadarsaniya D, Uhlenbruck S, Hennig-Pauka I, Schwegmann-Wessels C, Ren X, Dürrwald R, Herrler G. Replication characteristics of swine influenza viruses in precision-cut lung slices reflect the virulence properties of the viruses. Vet Res 2013; 44:110. [PMID: 24225030 PMCID: PMC3840634 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Precision-cut lung slices of pigs were infected with five swine influenza A viruses of different subtypes (A/sw/Potsdam/15/1981 H1N1, A/sw/Bad Griesbach/IDT5604/2006 H1N1, A/sw/Bakum/1832/2000 H1N2, A/sw/Damme/IDT5673/2006 H3N2, A/sw/Herford/IDT5932/2007 H3N2). The viruses were able to infect ciliated and mucus-producing cells. The infection of well-differentiated respiratory epithelial cells by swine influenza A viruses was analyzed with respect to the kinetics of virus release into the supernatant. The highest titres were determined for H3N2/2006 and H3N2/2007 viruses. H1N1/1981 and H1N2/2000 viruses replicated somewhat slower than the H3N2 viruses whereas a H1N1 strain from 2006 multiplied at significantly lower titres than the other strains. Regarding their ability to induce a ciliostatic effect, the two H3N2 strains were found to be most virulent. H1N1/1981 and H1N2/2000 were somewhat less virulent with respect to their effect on ciliary activity. The lowest ciliostatic effect was observed with H1N1/2006. In order to investigate whether this finding is associated with a corresponding virulence in the host, pigs were infected experimentally with H3N2/2006, H1N2/2000, H1N1/1981 and H1N1/2006 viruses. The H1N1/2006 virus was significantly less virulent than the other viruses in pigs which was in agreement with the results obtained by the in vitro-studies. These findings offer the possibility to develop an ex vivo-system that is able to assess virulence of swine influenza A viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Georg Herrler
- Institute of Virology University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany.
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20
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Full-Genome Sequence of a Reassortant H1N1 Swine Influenza Virus Isolated from Pigs in Italy. GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2013; 1:1/5/e00778-13. [PMID: 24092781 PMCID: PMC3790085 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.00778-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the full-genome sequence of a novel reassortant H1N1 swine influenza virus (SIV) is reported. The isolate has a hemagglutinin (HA) gene of the pandemic H1N1 influenza virus, but it carries the seven genome segments of the avian-origin H1N1 SIV currently circulating in European pig farms.
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21
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Genetic and biological characterisation of an avian-like H1N2 swine influenza virus generated by reassortment of circulating avian-like H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes in Denmark. Virol J 2013; 10:290. [PMID: 24047399 PMCID: PMC3851529 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-10-290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The influenza A virus subtypes H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2 are the most prevalent subtypes in swine. In 2003, a reassorted H1N2 swine influenza virus (SIV) subtype appeared and became prevalent in Denmark. In the present study, the reassortant H1N2 subtype was characterised genetically and the infection dynamics compared to an “avian-like” H1N1 virus by an experimental infection study. Methods Sequence analyses were performed of the H1N2 virus. Two groups of pigs were inoculated with the reassortant H1N2 virus and an “avian-like” H1N1 virus, respectively, followed by inoculation with the opposite subtype four weeks later. Measurements of HI antibodies and acute phase proteins were performed. Nasal virus excretion and virus load in lungs were determined by real-time RT-PCR. Results The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the reassorted H1N2 virus contained a European “avian-like” H1-gene and a European “swine-like” N2-gene, thus being genetically distinct from most H1N2 viruses circulating in Europe, but similar to viruses reported in 2009/2010 in Sweden and Italy. Sequence analyses of the internal genes revealed that the reassortment probably arose between circulating Danish “avian-like” H1N1 and H3N2 SIVs. Infected pigs developed cross-reactive antibodies, and increased levels of acute phase proteins after inoculations. Pigs inoculated with H1N2 exhibited nasal virus excretion for seven days, peaking day 1 after inoculation two days earlier than H1N1 infected pigs and at a six times higher level. The difference, however, was not statistically significant. Pigs euthanized on day 4 after inoculation, had a high virus load in all lung lobes. After the second inoculation, the nasal virus excretion was minimal. There were no clinical sign except elevated body temperature under the experimental conditions. Conclusions The “avian-like” H1N2 subtype, which has been established in the Danish pig population at least since 2003, is a reassortant between circulating swine “avian-like” H1N1 and H3N2. The Danish H1N2 has an “avian-like” H1 and differs from most other reported H1N2 viruses in Europe and North America/Asia, which have H1-genes of human or “classical-swine” origin, respectively. The variant seems, however, also to be circulating in countries like Sweden and Italy. The infection dynamics of the reassorted “avian-like” H1N2 is similar to the older “avian-like” H1N1 subtype.
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Expanded cocirculation of stable subtypes, emerging lineages, and new sporadic reassortants of porcine influenza viruses in swine populations in Northwest Germany. J Virol 2013; 87:10460-76. [PMID: 23824819 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00381-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of the human 2009 pandemic H1N1 (H1N1pdm) virus from swine populations refocused public and scientific attention on swine as an important source of influenza A viruses bearing zoonotic potential. Widespread and year-round circulation of at least four stable lineages of porcine influenza viruses between 2009 and 2012 in a region of Germany with a high-density swine population is documented here. European avian influenza virus-derived H1N1 (H1N1av) viruses dominated the epidemiology, followed by human-derived subtypes H1N2 and H3N2. H1N1pdm viruses and, in particular, recently emerging reassortants between H1N1pdm and porcine HxN2 viruses (H1pdmN2) were detected in about 8% of cases. Further reassortants between these main lineages were diagnosed sporadically. Ongoing diversification both at the phylogenetic and at the antigenic level was evident for the H1N1av lineage and for some of its reassortants. The H1avN2 reassortant R1931/11 displayed conspicuously distinct genetic and antigenic features and was easily transmitted from pig to pig in an experimental infection. Continuing diverging evolution was also observed in the H1pdmN2 lineage. These viruses carry seven genome segments of the H1N1pdm virus, including a hemagglutinin gene that encodes a markedly antigenically altered protein. The zoonotic potential of this lineage remains to be determined. The results highlight the relevance of surveillance and control of porcine influenza virus infections. This is important for the health status of swine herds. In addition, a more exhaustive tracing of the formation, transmission, and spread of new reassortant influenza A viruses with unknown zoonotic potential is urgently required.
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De Marco MA, Porru S, Cordioli P, Cesana BM, Moreno A, Calzoletti L, Bonfanti L, Boni A, Di Carlo AS, Arici C, Carta A, Castrucci MR, Donatelli I, Tomao P, Peri VM, Di Trani L, Vonesch N. Evidence of cross-reactive immunity to 2009 pandemic influenza A virus in workers seropositive to swine H1N1 influenza viruses circulating in Italy. PLoS One 2013; 8:e57576. [PMID: 23469029 PMCID: PMC3585202 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2012] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Pigs play a key epidemiologic role in the ecology of influenza A viruses (IAVs) emerging from animal hosts and transmitted to humans. Between 2008 and 2010, we investigated the health risk of occupational exposure to swine influenza viruses (SIVs) in Italy, during the emergence and spread of the 2009 H1N1 pandemic (H1N1pdm) virus. Methodology/Principal Findings Serum samples from 123 swine workers (SWs) and 379 control subjects (Cs), not exposed to pig herds, were tested by haemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay against selected SIVs belonging to H1N1 (swH1N1), H1N2 (swH1N2) and H3N2 (swH3N2) subtypes circulating in the study area. Potential cross-reactivity between swine and human IAVs was evaluated by testing sera against recent, pandemic and seasonal, human influenza viruses (H1N1 and H3N2 antigenic subtypes). Samples tested against swH1N1 and H1N1pdm viruses were categorized into sera collected before (n. 84 SWs; n. 234 Cs) and after (n. 39 SWs; n. 145 Cs) the pandemic peak. HI-antibody titers ≥10 were considered positive. In both pre-pandemic and post-pandemic peak subperiods, SWs showed significantly higher swH1N1 seroprevalences when compared with Cs (52.4% vs. 4.7% and 59% vs. 9.7%, respectively). Comparable HI results were obtained against H1N1pdm antigen (58.3% vs. 7.7% and 59% vs. 31.7%, respectively). No differences were found between HI seroreactivity detected in SWs and Cs against swH1N2 (33.3% vs. 40.4%) and swH3N2 (51.2 vs. 55.4%) viruses. These findings indicate the occurrence of swH1N1 transmission from pigs to Italian SWs. Conclusion/Significance A significant increase of H1N1pdm seroprevalences occurred in the post-pandemic peak subperiod in the Cs (p<0.001) whereas SWs showed no differences between the two subperiods, suggesting a possible occurrence of cross-protective immunity related to previous swH1N1 infections. These data underline the importance of risk assessment and occupational health surveillance activities aimed at early detection and control of SIVs with pandemic potential in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A De Marco
- Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immune-Mediated Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
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Skovgaard K, Cirera S, Vasby D, Podolska A, Breum SØ, Dürrwald R, Schlegel M, Heegaard PMH. Expression of innate immune genes, proteins and microRNAs in lung tissue of pigs infected experimentally with influenza virus (H1N2). Innate Immun 2013; 19:531-44. [PMID: 23405029 DOI: 10.1177/1753425912473668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed at providing a better understanding of the involvement of innate immune factors, including miRNA, in the local host response to influenza virus infection. Twenty pigs were challenged by influenza A virus subtype H1N2. Expression of microRNA (miRNA), mRNA and proteins were quantified in lung tissue at different time points after challenge (24 h, 72 h and 14 d post-infection (p.i.). Several groups of genes were significantly regulated according to time point and infection status including pattern recognition receptors (TLR2, TLR3, TLR7, retinoic acid-inducible gene I, melanoma differentiation associated protein-5), IFN and IFN-induced genes (IFN-β, IFN-γ, IRF7, STAT1, ISG15 and OASL), cytokines (IL-1 β, IL-1RN, IL-6, IL-7, IL-10, IL-12A, TNF-α, CCL2, CCL3 and CXCL10) and several acute phase proteins. Likewise, the following miRNAs were differentially expressed in one or more time groups compared with the control pigs: miR-15a, miR-21, miR-146, miR-206, miR-223 and miR-451. At d 1 p.i. lung tissue protein levels of IL-6, IL-12 and IFN-α were significantly increased compared with the control group, and haptoglobin and C-reactive protein were significantly increased at d 3 p.i. Our results suggest that, in addition to a wide range of innate immune factors, miRNAs may also be involved in controlling acute influenza infection in pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Skovgaard
- 1Innate Immunology Group, National Veterinary Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark
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25
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Abstract
Avian-like H1N1 and reassortant H3N2 and H1N2 influenza A viruses with a human-like haemagglutinin have been co-circulating in swine in Europe for more than a decade. We aimed to examine the infection dynamics of the three swine influenza virus (SIV) lineages at the farm level, and to identify possible regional and seasonal variations in their circulation. Sera were collected from six successive generations of fattening pigs (2006-2008) in a total 80 farrow-to-finish herds in Belgium, Italy, France and Spain and examined for antibodies against the three SIVs in haemagglutination inhibition tests. Overall, in all regions and periods, 9.7% of all farms were negative for SIV, 49% were infected with one subtype, 38% with two subtypes and 3.9% with all three SIVs. We found serological evidence for the circulation of all three subtypes in Belgium, Italy and Spain, while only infections with H1N1 and H1N2 SIVs were detected in France. Despite temporary changes in the circulation of H1N2 in Belgium and in Spain, there was no true seasonal variation. The exact combination of subtypes on the same farm differed in each of the sampling periods. On the other hand, 21 farms were found to be consistently infected with the same SIV subtype throughout the study. This can either be explained by the persistence of the virus in a farm, or by the periodical re-introduction of SIVs of the same subtype.
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Nelson MI, Gramer MR, Vincent AL, Holmes EC. Global transmission of influenza viruses from humans to swine. J Gen Virol 2012; 93:2195-2203. [PMID: 22791604 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.044974-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
To determine the extent to which influenza viruses jump between human and swine hosts, we undertook a large-scale phylogenetic analysis of pandemic A/H1N1/09 (H1N1pdm09) influenza virus genome sequence data. From this, we identified at least 49 human-to-swine transmission events that occurred globally during 2009-2011, thereby highlighting the ability of the H1N1pdm09 virus to transmit repeatedly from humans to swine, even following adaptive evolution in humans. Similarly, we identified at least 23 separate introductions of human seasonal (non-pandemic) H1 and H3 influenza viruses into swine globally since 1990. Overall, these results reveal the frequency with which swine are exposed to human influenza viruses, indicate that humans make a substantial contribution to the genetic diversity of influenza viruses in swine, and emphasize the need to improve biosecurity measures at the human-swine interface, including influenza vaccination of swine workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martha I Nelson
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Marie R Gramer
- University of Minnesota Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, St Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Amy L Vincent
- Virus and Prion Diseases Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, USDA-ARS, Ames, IA 50010, USA
| | - Edward C Holmes
- Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.,Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Starick E, Lange E, Grund C, Grosse Beilage E, Döhring S, Maas A, Noé T, Beer M, Harder TC. Reassortants of pandemic influenza A virus H1N1/2009 and endemic porcine HxN2 viruses emerge in swine populations in Germany. J Gen Virol 2012; 93:1658-1663. [PMID: 22622326 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.042648-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The incursion of the human pandemic influenza A virus H1N1 (2009) (H1N1 pdm) into pig populations and its ongoing co-circulation with endemic swine influenza viruses (SIVs) has yielded distinct human-porcine reassortant virus lineages. The haemagglutinin (HA) gene of H1N1 pdm was detected in 41 influenza virus-positive samples from seven swine herds in north-west Germany in 2011. Eight of these samples yielded virus that carried SIV-derived neuraminidase N2 of three different porcine lineages in an H1N1 pdm backbone. The HA sequences of these viruses clustered in two distinct groups and were distinguishable from human and other porcine H1 pdm by a unique set of eight non-synonymous mutations. In contrast to the human population, where H1N1 pdm replaced seasonal H1N1, this virus seems to co-circulate and interact more intensely with endemic SIV lineages, giving rise to reassortants with as-yet-unknown biological properties and undetermined risks for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke Starick
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Suedufer 10, D-17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Elke Lange
- Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Suedufer 10, D-17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Christian Grund
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Suedufer 10, D-17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Grosse Beilage
- Field Station for Epidemiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Büscheler Str. 9, D-49456 Bakum, Germany
| | - Stefanie Döhring
- Field Station for Epidemiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Büscheler Str. 9, D-49456 Bakum, Germany
| | - Alexander Maas
- vaxxinova GmbH, Anton Flettner-Str. 6, D-27472 Cuxhaven, Germany
| | - Thomas Noé
- vaxxinova GmbH, Anton Flettner-Str. 6, D-27472 Cuxhaven, Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Suedufer 10, D-17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Timm C Harder
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Suedufer 10, D-17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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