Chimeric viruses containing the N-terminal ectodomains of GP5 and M proteins of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus do not change the cellular tropism of equine arteritis virus

Development of a chronic focal equine arteritis virus infection of a male reproductive tract cell line

Equine arteritis virus (EAV) is an Alphaarterivirus (family Arteriviridae, order Nidovirales) that frequently causes an influenza-like illness in adult horses, but can also cause the abortions in mares and death of newborn foals. Once primary infection has been established, EAV can persist in the reproductive tract of some stallions. However, the mechanisms enabling this persistence, which depends on testosterone, remain largely unknown. We aimed to establish an in vitro model of non-cytopathic EAV infection to study viral persistence. In this work, we infected several cell lines originating from the male reproductive tract of different species. EAV infection was fully cytopathic for 92BR (donkey cells) and DDT1 MF-2 (hamster cells) cells, and less cytopathic for PC-3 cells (human cells); ST cells (porcine cells) seemed to eliminate the virus; LNCaP (human cells) and GC-1 spg (murine cells) cells were not permissive to EAV infection; finally, TM3 cells (murine cells) were permissive to EAV infection without any overt cytopathic effects. Infected TM3 cells can be maintained at least 7 days in culture without any subculture. They can also be subcultured over 39 days (subculturing them at 1:2 the first time at 5 dpi and then every 2-3 days), but in this case, the percentage of infected cells remains low. Infected TM3 cells may therefore provide a new model to study the host-pathogen interactions and to help determine the mechanisms involved in EAV persistence in stallion reproductive tract.

One-Step Assembly of a PRRSV Infectious cDNA Clone and a Convenient CRISPR/Cas9-Based Gene-Editing Technology for Manipulation of PRRSV Genome

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) has been a persistent challenge for the swine industry for over three decades due to the lack of effective treatments and vaccines. Reverse genetics systems have been extensively employed to build rapid drug screening platforms and develop genetically engineered vaccines. Herein, we rescued recombinant PRRS virus (rPRRSV) WUH3 using an infectious cDNA clone of PRRSV WUH3 acquired through a BstXI-based one-step-assembly approach. The rPRRSV WUH3 and its parental PRRSV WUH3 share similar plaque sizes and multiple-step growth curves. Previously, gene-editing of viral genomes depends on appropriate restrictive endonucleases, which are arduous to select in some specific viral genes. Thus, we developed a restrictive endonucleases-free method based on CRISPR/Cas9 to edit the PRRSV genome. Using this method, we successfully inserted the exogenous gene (EGFP gene as an example) into the interval between ORF1b and ORF2a of the PRRSV genome to generate rPRRSV WUH3-EGFP, or precisely mutated the lysine (K) at position 150 of PRRSV nsp1α to glutamine (Q) to acquire rPRRSV WUH3 nsp1α-K150Q. Taken together, our study provides a rapid and convenient method for the development of genetically engineered vaccines against PRRSV and the study on the functions of PRRSV genes.

Genetic characterization and pathogenicity of a novel recombinant PRRSV from lineage 1, 8 and 3 in China failed to infect MARC-145 cells

The diversity of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) in China is increasing rapidly along with mutation and recombination. Recombination could occur between inter- and intra-lineage of PRRSV, which accelerated the complexity of pathogenicity and cell tropism of the recombinant strain. In the present study, a novel PRRSV strain named HN-YL1711 was isolated from a pig farm suffering from severe respiratory difficulty in Henan province, China. The whole genomic sequence analysis indicated that the genome of HN-YL1711 was 15018 nt. It shared 86%, 87.3%, 88.1%, 91.1%, 84.2%, and 84.1% nucleotide similarities with PRRSVs VR2332, CH1a, JXA1, NADC30, QYYZ, and GM2, respectively. Based on phylogenetic analysis of Nsp2, ORF5 and complete genomes, HN-YL1711 was classified into lineage 1 of PRRSV. However, seven genomic break points were detected in recombination analysis, which indicated that the HN-YL1711 originated from multiple recombination among NADC30-like (major parent, lineage 1), JXA1-like (minor parent, lineage 8), and QYYZ-like (minor parent, lineage 3) PRRSV. Porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs), 3D4/21-CD163 and MARC-145 cells were used to explore the viral adaptation of HN-YL1711. The results indicated that it could infect the PAMs but failed to infect MARC-145 cells. Challenge experiments showed that HN-YL1711 exhibits intermediate virulence in pigs, compared with HP-PRRSV JXA1 and LP-PRRSV CH1a. Taken together, our findings suggest that recombination remains an important factor in PRRSV evolution and that recombination further complicates the cell tropism and pathogenicity of PRRSV.

Recent Advances in PRRS Virus Receptors and the Targeting of Receptor-Ligand for Control

Cellular receptors play a critical role in viral infection. At least seven cellular molecules have been identified as putative viral entry mediators for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). Accumulating data indicate that among these candidates, CD163, a cysteine-rich scavenger receptor on macrophages, is the major receptor for PRRSV. This review discusses the recent advances and understanding of the entry of PRRSV into cells, viral pathogenesis in CD163 gene-edited swine, and CD163 as a potential target of receptor–ligand for the control of PRRS.

Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus Reverse Genetics and the Major Applications

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is a positive sense, single-stranded RNA virus that is known to infect only pigs. The virus emerged in the late 1980s and became endemic in most swine producing countries, causing substantial economic losses to the swine industry. The first reverse genetics system for PRRSV was reported in 1998. Since then, several infectious cDNA clones for PRRSV have been constructed. The availability of these infectious cDNA clones has facilitated the genetic modifications of the viral genome at precise locations. Common approaches to manipulate the viral genome include site-directed mutagenesis, deletion of viral genes or gene fragments, insertion of foreign genes, and swapping genes between PRRSV strains or between PRRSV and other members of the Arteriviridae family. In this review, we describe the approaches to construct an infectious cDNA for PRRSV and the ten major applications of these infectious clones to study virus biology and virus–host interaction, and to design a new generation of vaccines with improved levels of safety and efficacy.

Adaptions of field PRRSVs in Marc-145 cells were determined by variations in the minor envelope proteins GP2a-GP3

The recent rapid evolution of PRRSVs has resulted in certain biological characteristic changes, such as the fact that an increasing number of field PRRSVs can be isolated from PAMs but not from Marc-145 cells. In this study, we first isolated Marc-145-unadaptive field PRRSV strains from PAMs; sequence analysis showed that these PRRSVs belong to the HP-PRRSV (lineage 8) branch or NADC30-Like (lineage 1) branch. We further found major variations in ORF2-4 regions. To explore the viral adaptation mechanisms in detail, we constructed a full-length cDNA clone of MY-376, a Marc-145-unadaptive PRRSV. Construction of serially chimeric viruses of HuN4-F112 (a Marc-145-adaptive strain) and MY-376 demonstrated that variation in the minor envelope protein (GP2a and GP3) complex is a main determinant of PRRSV tropism for Marc-145 cells.

Supramolecular Architecture of the Coronavirus Particle

Coronavirus particles serve three fundamentally important functions in infection. The virion provides the means to deliver the viral genome across the plasma membrane of a host cell. The virion is also a means of escape for newly synthesized genomes. Lastly, the virion is a durable vessel that protects the genome on its journey between cells. This review summarizes the available X-ray crystallography, NMR, and cryoelectron microscopy structural data for coronavirus structural proteins, and looks at the role of each of the major structural proteins in virus entry and assembly. The potential wider conservation of the nucleoprotein fold identified in the Arteriviridae and Coronaviridae families and a speculative model for the evolution of corona-like virus architecture are discussed.

Live porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus vaccines: Current status and future direction

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) caused by PRRS virus (PRRSV) was reported in the late 1980s. PRRS still is a huge economic concern to the global pig industry with a current annual loss estimated at one billion US dollars in North America alone. It has been 20 years since the first modified live-attenuated PRRSV vaccine (PRRSV-MLV) became commercially available. PRRSV-MLVs provide homologous protection and help in reducing shedding of heterologous viruses, but they do not completely protect pigs against heterologous field strains. There have been many advances in understanding the biology and ecology of PRRSV; however, the complexities of virus-host interaction and PRRSV vaccinology are not yet completely understood leaving a significant gap for improving breadth of immunity against diverse PRRS isolates. This review provides insights on immunization efforts using infectious PRRSV-based vaccines since the 1990s, beginning with live PRRSV immunization, development and commercialization of PRRSV-MLV, and strategies to overcome the deficiencies of PRRSV-MLV through use of replicating viral vectors expressing multiple PRRSV membrane proteins. Finally, powerful reverse genetics systems (infectious cDNA clones) generated from more than 20 PRRSV isolates of both genotypes 1 and 2 viruses have provided a great resource for exploring many innovative strategies to improve the safety and cross-protective efficacy of live PRRSV vaccines. Examples include vaccines with diminished ability to down-regulate the immune system, positive and negative marker vaccines, multivalent vaccines incorporating antigens from other porcine pathogens, vaccines that carry their own cytokine adjuvants, and chimeric vaccine viruses with the potential for broad cross-protection against heterologous strains. To combat this devastating pig disease in the future, evaluation and commercialization of such improved live PRRSV vaccines is a shared goal among PRRSV researchers, pork producers and biologics companies.

PRRS virus receptors and their role for pathogenesis

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is endemic in most pig producing countries worldwide and causes enormous economic losses to the swine industry. Specifically differentiated porcine alveolar macrophages are the primary target for PRRSV infection in pigs. At least six cellular molecules have been described so far as putative receptors for PRRSV, and they include heparan sulfate, vimentin, CD151, sialoadhesin (CD169; siglec-1), dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion melecule-3-grabbing non-integrin (DC-SIGN; CD209), and CD163 (SRCR, cysteine-rich scavenger receptor). Progress has been made to shed light on the interactions between cells and PRRSV, and this review describes the advances and current understanding of the entry of PRRSV to cells with a particular focus on the role of CD163 and sialoadhesin for infection and PRRSV pathogenesis. CD163 is most likely the primary and core receptor for PRRSV and determines the susceptibility of cells to the virus. Sialoadhesin is either unnecessary for infection or may function as an accessory protein. Sialoadhesin has been mostly studied for genotype I PRRSV whereas the utilization of CD163 has been mostly studied using genotype II PRRSV, and whether each genotype indeed utilizes a different receptor is unclear.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS): an immune dysregulatory pandemic

Porcine reproductive and respiratory disease syndrome (PRRS) is a viral pandemic that especially affects neonates within the “critical window” of immunological development. PRRS was recognized in 1987 and within a few years became pandemic causing an estimated yearly $600,000 economic loss in the USA with comparative losses in most other countries. The causative agent is a single-stranded, positive-sense enveloped arterivirus (PRRSV) that infects macrophages and plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Despite the discovery of PRRSV in 1991 and the publication of >2,000 articles, the control of PRRS is problematic. Despite the large volume of literature on this disease, the cellular and molecular mechanisms describing how PRRSV dysregulates the host immune system are poorly understood. We know that PRRSV suppresses innate immunity and causes abnormal B cell proliferation and repertoire development, often lymphopenia and thymic atrophy. The PRRSV genome is highly diverse, rapidly evolving but amenable to the generation of many mutants and chimeric viruses for experimental studies. PRRSV only replicates in swine which adds to the experimental difficulty since no inbred well-defined animal models are available. In this article, we summarize current knowledge and apply it toward developing a series of provocative and testable hypotheses to explain how PRRSV immunomodulates the porcine immune system with the goal of adding new perspectives on this disease.

Engineering the PRRS virus genome: updates and perspectives

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We review PRRSV infectious clones and their applications.

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14 infectious clones are available so far for genotypes I and II.

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Genomic mutations, insertions, deletions, and replacements are successful.

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We discuss advances and utilization of PRRSV reverse genetics and future potential.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is endemic in most pig producing countries worldwide and causes enormous economic losses to the pork industry. Infectious clones for PRRSV have been constructed, and so far at least 14 different infectious clones are available representing both genotypes I and II. Two strategies have been taken for progeny reconstitution: RNA transfection and DNA transfection. Mutations, insertions, deletions, and replacements of the viral genome have been employed to study the structure function relationship, foreign gene expression, functional complementation, and virulence determinants. Essential regions and non-essential regions for viral replication have been identified in both the coding regions and non-encoding regions. Foreign sequences have successfully been inserted into the nsp2 and N regions and in the space between ORF1b and ORF2a. Chimeras between member viruses in the family Arteriviridae have also been constructed and utilized to study cell tropism and functional complementation. This review discusses the advances and utilization of PRRSV reverse genetics and its potential for future research.

Experiences with infectious cDNA clones of equine arteritis virus: lessons learned and insights gained

The advent of recombinant DNA technology, development of infectious cDNA clones of RNA viruses, and reverse genetic technologies have revolutionized how viruses are studied. Genetic manipulation of full-length cDNA clones has become an especially important and widely used tool to study the biology, pathogenesis, and virulence determinants of both positive and negative stranded RNA viruses. The first full-length infectious cDNA clone of equine arteritis virus (EAV) was developed in 1996 and was also the first full-length infectious cDNA clone constructed from a member of the order Nidovirales. This clone was extensively used to characterize the molecular biology of EAV and other Nidoviruses. The objective of this review is to summarize the characterization of the virulence (or attenuation) phenotype of the recombinant viruses derived from several infectious cDNA clones of EAV in horses, as well as their application for characterization of the molecular basis of viral neutralization, persistence, and cellular tropism.

RNA interference targeting nucleocapsid protein inhibits porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus replication in Marc-145 cells

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is an important disease, which leads to severe economic losses in swine-producing areas of the world. However, current antiviral strategies cannot provide highly effective protection. In this study, three theoretically effective interference target sites (71–91, 144–164, 218–238) targeting the nucleocapsid (N) gene of PRRSV were designed and selected, and then three siRNA-expressing plasmids were constructed, respectively named p2.1-N71, p2.1-N144, and p2.1-N218. The recombinant siRNA-expressing plasmids were transfected into Marc-145 cells; then the cells were infected with PRRSV (JL07SW strain); finally, after incubation for 48 h, the antiviral activity of those siRNA-expressing plasmids in Marc-145 cells was assessed by cytopathic effects, virus titers, indirect immunofluorescence, and quantitative real-time PCR. Experimental results demonstrated that these three siRNA-expressing plasmids could effectively and significantly inhibit the replication of PRRSV by 93.2%, 83.6%, and 89.2% in Marc-145 cells, respectively. Among these three siRNA-expressing plasmids, p2.1-N71 was found to be most effective, while p2.1-N144 and p2.1-N218 displayed relatively weak inhibition of virus replication. The results indicated that siRNA-expressing plasmids targeting the N gene of PRRSV could significantly inhibit PRRSV replication in Marc-145 cells. Based on our experimental results and previous reports, the 71–91, 179–197, and 234–252 sites of the N gene are good choices to effectively inhibit the replication of PRRSV, and this RNA interference technique can be a potential anti-PRRSV strategy.

High genetic diversity and adaptive potential of two simian hemorrhagic fever viruses in a wild primate population

Key biological properties such as high genetic diversity and high evolutionary rate enhance the potential of certain RNA viruses to adapt and emerge. Identifying viruses with these properties in their natural hosts could dramatically improve disease forecasting and surveillance. Recently, we discovered two novel members of the viral family Arteriviridae: simian hemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV)-krc1 and SHFV-krc2, infecting a single wild red colobus (Procolobus rufomitratus tephrosceles) in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Nearly nothing is known about the biological properties of SHFVs in nature, although the SHFV type strain, SHFV-LVR, has caused devastating outbreaks of viral hemorrhagic fever in captive macaques. Here we detected SHFV-krc1 and SHFV-krc2 in 40% and 47% of 60 wild red colobus tested, respectively. We found viral loads in excess of 10(6)-10(7) RNA copies per milliliter of blood plasma for each of these viruses. SHFV-krc1 and SHFV-krc2 also showed high genetic diversity at both the inter- and intra-host levels. Analyses of synonymous and non-synonymous nucleotide diversity across viral genomes revealed patterns suggestive of positive selection in SHFV open reading frames (ORF) 5 (SHFV-krc2 only) and 7 (SHFV-krc1 and SHFV-krc2). Thus, these viruses share several important properties with some of the most rapidly evolving, emergent RNA viruses.

Signal peptide cleavage from GP3 enabled by removal of adjacent glycosylation sites does not impair replication of equine arteritis virus in cell culture, but the hydrophobic C-terminus is essential

The disulphide-linked GP2/3/4 spike of equine arteritis virus (EAV) is essential for virus entry. We showed recently that in transfected cells carbohydrates attached adjacent to the signal peptide of GP3 inhibit cleavage. Here we confirm this unique phenomenon in recombinant viruses with disabled glycosylation sites. Surprisingly, the infectivity of EAV containing GP3 with cleaved signal peptide was not impaired and GP3 with cleaved signal peptide associates with GP2/4 in virus particles. In contrast, viruses containing GP3 with deleted hydrophobic C-terminus rapidly reverted back to wild type. The data support our model that the signal peptide is exposed to the lumen of the ER and the C-terminus peripherally attaches GP3 to membranes.

Equine arteritis virus

Equine arteritis virus (EAV) is the causative agent of equine viral arteritis (EVA), a respiratory and reproductive disease of equids. There has been significant recent progress in understanding the molecular biology of EAV and the pathogenesis of its infection in horses. In particular, the use of contemporary genomic techniques, along with the development and reverse genetic manipulation of infectious cDNA clones of several strains of EAV, has generated significant novel information regarding the basic molecular biology of the virus. Therefore, the objective of this review is to summarize current understanding of EAV virion architecture, replication, evolution, molecular epidemiology and genetic variation, pathogenesis including the influence of host genetics on disease susceptibility, host immune response, and potential vaccination and treatment strategies.

Signal peptide cleavage from GP5 of PRRSV: a minor fraction of molecules retains the decoy epitope, a presumed molecular cause for viral persistence

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is the major pathogen in the pig industry. Variability of the antigens and persistence are the biggest challenges for successful control and elimination of the disease. GP5, the major glycoprotein of PRRSV, is considered an important target of neutralizing antibodies, which however appear only late in infection. This was attributed to the presence of a “decoy epitope” located near a hypervariable region of GP5. This region also harbors the predicted signal peptide cleavage sites and (dependent on the virus strain) a variable number of potential N-glycosylation sites. Molecular processing of GP5 has not been addressed experimentally so far: whether and where the signal peptide is cleaved and (as a consequence) whether the “decoy epitope” is present in virus particles. We show that the signal peptide of GP5 from the American type 2 reference strain VR-2332 is cleaved, both during in vitro translation in the presence of microsomes and in transfected cells. This was found to be independent of neighboring glycosylation sites and occurred in a variety of porcine cells for GP5 sequences derived from various type 2 strains. The exact signal peptide cleavage site was elucidated by mass spectrometry of virus-derived and recombinant GP5. The results revealed that the signal peptide of GP5 is cleaved at two sites. As a result, a mixture of GP5 proteins exists in virus particles, some of which still contain the “decoy epitope” sequence. Heterogeneity was also observed for the use of glycosylation sites in the hypervariable region. Lastly, GP5 mutants were engineered where one of the signal peptide cleavage sites was blocked. Wildtype GP5 exhibited exactly the same SDS-PAGE mobility as the mutant that is cleavable at site 2 only. This indicates that the overwhelming majority of all GP5 molecules does not contain the “decoy epitope”.