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Anderson B, Black GP, Young TM. Disinfection Byproducts in Drinking Water from the Tap: Variability in Household Calculated Additive Toxicity (CAT). ACS ES&T WATER 2024; 4:3532-3539. [PMID: 39144678 PMCID: PMC11320572 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.4c00392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2024] [Revised: 07/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024]
Abstract
Recent studies have implemented a calculated additive toxicity (CAT) approach that sums measured disinfection byproduct (DBP) concentrations weighted by their respective in vitro bioassay potencies to estimate their associated risk in disinfected waters. In this study, the CAT approach was used to systematically investigate 21 regulated and unregulated DBPs measured in drinking water at the household level. Water samples from the tap were collected from over 120 randomly selected participants supplied by eight public water systems using four distinct source water types, two types of disinfection processes, and across two seasons. The purpose of this study was to compare CAT using multiple biological end points, examine household variability, identify DBPs driving toxicity, and assess if current regulated DBPs are adequate predictors of unregulated DBPs. Our results support the significance of unregulated DBPs, particularly haloacetonitriles and iodoacetic acid, as drivers of toxicity. Simple linear models between regulated versus unregulated concentrations and CAT were overall weak with 67% considered poor (r 2 < 0.3). These results reveal that current regulatory monitoring approaches may not be adequately capturing true household exposure due to higher contribution of unregulated DBPs to CAT and poor predictability between regulated and unregulated DBP-mediated CAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berkley
N. Anderson
- Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | | | - Thomas M. Young
- Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
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2
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Unrine JM, McCoy N, Christian WJ, Gautam Y, Ormsbee L, Sanderson W, Draper R, Mooney M, Cromer M, Pennell K, Hoover AG. Spatial and seasonal variation in disinfection byproducts concentrations in a rural public drinking water system: A case study of Martin County, Kentucky, USA. PLOS WATER 2024; 3:e0000227. [PMID: 39175793 PMCID: PMC11340270 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pwat.0000227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
To increase our understanding of the factors that influence formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in rural drinking systems, we investigated the spatial and seasonal variation in trihalomethane (THM) and haloacetic acid (HAA) concentrations in relation to various chemical and physical variables in a rural public drinking water system in Martin County, Kentucky, USA. We collected drinking water samples from 97 individual homes over the course of one year and analyzed them for temperature, electrical conductivity, pH, free chlorine, total chlorine, THMs (chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, dichlorobromomethane, and bromoform) and HAAs (monochloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, bromoacetic acid, and dibromoacetic acid). Spatial autocorrelation analysis showed only weak overall clustering for HAA concentrations and none for THMs. The relationship between modeled water age and TTHM or HAA5 concentrations varied seasonally. In contrast, there was strong variation for both HAA and THMs, with concentrations of HAA peaking in mid-summer and THMs peaking in early fall. Multiple regression analysis revealed that THM concentrations were strongly correlated with conductivity, while HAA concentrations were more strongly correlated with water temperature. Individual DBP species that only contained chlorine halogen groups were strongly correlated with temperature, while compounds containing bromine were more strongly correlated with conductivity. Further investigation revealed that increased drinking water conductivity associated with low discharge of the Tug Fork River, the source water, is highly correlated with increased concentrations of bromide. Discharge and conductivity of the Tug Fork River changed dramatically through the year contributing to a seasonal peak in bromide concentrations in the late summer and early fall and appeared to be a driver of brominated THM concentrations. Brominated DBPs tend to have higher toxicity than DBPs containing only chlorine, therefore this study provides important insight into the seasonal factors driving risk from exposure to DBPs in rural drinking water systems impacted by bromide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M. Unrine
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
- Kentucky Water Research Institute, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Nina McCoy
- Martin County Concerned Citizens, Inc., Inez, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - W. Jay Christian
- Department of Epidemiology and Environmental Health, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Yogesh Gautam
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Lindell Ormsbee
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Wayne Sanderson
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Ricki Draper
- Livelihoods Knowledge Exchange Network, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
- Appalachian Citizens’ Law Center, Inc., Whitesburg, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Madison Mooney
- Martin County Concerned Citizens, Inc., Inez, Kentucky, United States of America
- Livelihoods Knowledge Exchange Network, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Mary Cromer
- Appalachian Citizens’ Law Center, Inc., Whitesburg, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Kelly Pennell
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Anna G. Hoover
- Department of Epidemiology and Environmental Health, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
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3
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Luben TJ, Shaffer RM, Kenyon E, Nembhard WN, Weber KA, Nuckols J, Wright JM. Comparison of Trihalomethane exposure assessment metrics in epidemiologic analyses of reproductive and developmental outcomes. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2024; 34:115-125. [PMID: 37316533 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-023-00559-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Researchers have developed exposure assessment metrics for disinfection by-products (DBPs) utilizing drinking water monitoring data and accounting for spatial and temporal variability, water consumption, and showering and bathing time with an expectation of decreasing exposure misclassification compared to the use of measured concentrations at public water supply (PWS) monitoring locations alone. OBJECTIVE We used exposure data collected for a previous study of DBPs to evaluate how different sources of information impact trihalomethane (THM) exposure estimates. METHODS We compared gestational exposure estimates to THMs based on water utility monitoring data alone, statistical imputation of daily concentrations to incorporate temporal variability, and personal water consumption and use (bathing and showering). We used Spearman correlation coefficients and ranked kappa statistics to compare exposure classifications. RESULTS Exposure estimates based on measured or imputed daily THM concentrations, self-reported consumption, or bathing and showering differed substantially from estimates based solely on concentrations from PWS quarterly monitoring reports. Ranked exposure classifications, high to low quartiles or deciles, were generally consistent across each exposure metric (i.e., a subject with "high" exposure based on measured or imputed THM concentrations generally remained in the "high" category across exposure metrics.) The measured concentrations and imputed daily (i.e., spline regression) concentrations were highly correlated (r = 0.98). The weighted kappa statistics comparing exposure estimates using different exposure metrics ranged from 0.27 to 0.89, with the highest values for the ingestion + bathing/showering metrics compared to metrics for bathing/showering only (0.76 and 0.89). Bathing and showering contributed the most to "total" THM exposure estimates. IMPACT STATEMENT We compare exposure metrics capturing temporal variability and multiple estimates of personal THM exposure with THM concentrations from PWS monitoring data. Our results show exposure estimates based on imputed daily concentrations accounting for temporal variability were very similar to the measured THM concentrations. We observed low agreement between imputed daily concentrations and ingestion-based estimates. Considering additional routes of exposure (e.g., inhalation and dermal) slightly increased agreement with the measured PWS exposure estimate in this population. Overall, the comparison of exposure assessment metrics allows researchers to understand the added value of additional data collection for future epidemiologic analyses of DBPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J Luben
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. RTP, NC, Washington, DC, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Rachel M Shaffer
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. RTP, NC, Washington, DC, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Elaina Kenyon
- Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, RTP, RTP, NC, USA
| | - Wendy N Nembhard
- Arkansas Center for Birth Defects Research and Prevention and the Department of Epidemiology, Fay. W. Boozman College of Public Health, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Kari A Weber
- Arkansas Center for Birth Defects Research and Prevention and the Department of Epidemiology, Fay. W. Boozman College of Public Health, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - John Nuckols
- Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA; JRN Environmental Health Sciences, LTD, North Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - J Michael Wright
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. RTP, NC, Washington, DC, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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Mishaqa ESI, Radwan EK, Ibrahim MBM, Hegazy TA, Ibrahim MS. Multi-exposure human health risks assessment of trihalomethanes in drinking water of Egypt. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 207:112643. [PMID: 34973941 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The present study aims to assess the probable lifetime cancer and non-cancer risks of exposure to the trihalomethanes in Egypt's drinking water through ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation. A total of 1667 drinking water samples were collected from twenty-three Egyptian governorates over a three-years period. The concentrations of total trihalomethanes ranged between 29.07 and 86.01 μg/L and were always below the maximum contamination level recommended by the Egyptian standards (100 μg/L). Chloroform was the most prominent trihalomethanes species, while bromoform was rarely detected. The cancer risk study revealed that, among the investigated paths, inhalation poses the greatest risk. And bromodichloromethane had the highest impact to cancer (69%), followed by chlorodibromomethane (28%). Geographically, the highest cancer risk value was found in Matruh governorate (42.2 × 10-6) and the lowest was in Minya governorate (1.0 × 10-6). The cancer risk for the studied governorates, except Minya governorate, was higher than the level recommended by the USEPA (1.0 × 10-6). Hazard index (HI) study revealed that the ingestion pathway caused higher HI values than the dermal pathway and that chloroform had the highest contribution to HI value. However, the values of HI were below unity in all studied governorates demonstrating that there would be negligible non-cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- El-Sayed I Mishaqa
- Reference Laboratory for Drinking Water, Holding Company for Water and Wastewater, Shubra El-Khima Water Treatment Plant, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Emad K Radwan
- Water Pollution Research Department, National Research Centre, 33 El Buhouth St, Dokki, Giza, 12622, Egypt.
| | - M B M Ibrahim
- Reference Laboratory for Drinking Water, Holding Company for Water and Wastewater, Shubra El-Khima Water Treatment Plant, Cairo, Egypt; Water Pollution Research Department, National Research Centre, 33 El Buhouth St, Dokki, Giza, 12622, Egypt
| | - Talaat A Hegazy
- Environmental Science Department, Faculty of Science, Damietta University, New Damietta, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud S Ibrahim
- Environmental Science Department, Faculty of Science, Damietta University, New Damietta, Egypt
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Is maternal employment site a source of exposure misclassification in studies of environmental exposures and birth outcomes? A simulation-based bias analysis of haloacetic acids in tap water and hypospadias. Environ Epidemiol 2022; 6:e207. [DOI: 10.1097/ee9.0000000000000207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Furst KE, Bolorinos J, Mitch WA. Use of trihalomethanes as a surrogate for haloacetonitrile exposure introduces misclassification bias. WATER RESEARCH X 2021; 11:100089. [PMID: 33554102 PMCID: PMC7851183 DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2021.100089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiologists have used trihalomethanes (THMs) as a surrogate for overall disinfection byproduct (DBP) exposure based on the assumption that THM concentrations are proportional to concentrations of other DBP classes. Toxicological evidence indicates THMs are less potent toxins than unregulated classes like haloacetonitriles (HANs). If THMs are not proportional to the DBPs driving toxicity, the use of THMs to measure exposure may introduce non-trivial exposure misclassification bias in epidemiologic studies. This study developed statistical models to evaluate the covariance and proportionality of HAN and THM concentrations in a dataset featuring over 9500 measurements from 248 public water systems. THMs only explain ∼30% of the variance in HANs, whether the data is pooled in a classic linear regression or hierarchically grouped by water system in a multilevel linear regression. The 95% prediction interval on HANs for the median THM concentration exceeds the interquartile range of HANs. Mean HAN:THM ratios range from ∼2.4% to ∼80% across water systems, and varied with source water category, season, disinfectant sequence and distribution system location. The HAN:THM ratio was 265% higher in groundwater systems than in surface water systems and declined by ∼40% between finished effluent and maximum residence times in surface water systems with chlorine-chlorine disinfection. A maximum likelihood approach was used to estimate the misclassification bias that may result from using THMs to construct risk-ratios, assuming that HANs represent the "true" DBP exposure risk. The results indicate an odds ratio of ∼2 estimated with THM concentrations could correspond to a true odds ratio of 4-5. These findings demonstrate the need for epidemiologic studies to evaluate exposure by measuring DBPs that are likely to drive toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirin E. Furst
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Infrastructure Engineering, George Mason University, 4400 University Dr, Fairfax, VA, 22030, United States
| | - Jose Bolorinos
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
| | - William A. Mitch
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
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7
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Summerhayes RJ, Rahman B, Morgan GG, Beresin G, Moreno C, Wright JM. Meta-analysis of small for gestational age births and disinfection byproduct exposures. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 196:110280. [PMID: 33035558 PMCID: PMC11425775 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 09/27/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Some epidemiological studies show associations between disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and adverse developmental outcomes. OBJECTIVES We undertook a meta-analysis of epidemiological studies on maternal exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) and risk of small for gestational age (SGA) birth. METHODS We identified forty-five publications including two reports and five theses via a 2020 literature search. Nineteen study populations from 16 publications met the inclusion criteria and were systematically evaluated. Effect measures were pooled using random effects meta-analytic methods along with cumulative, sub-group and meta-regression analyses to examine between-study heterogeneity and variation in risk across different DBP measures. RESULTS We detected a small increased risk for SGA with exposure to the sum of four (i.e., THM4) THM4 (odds ratio (OR) = 1.07; 95%CI: 1.03, 1.11), chloroform (OR = 1.05; 95%CI: 1.01, 1.08), bromodichloromethane (OR = 1.08; 95%CI: 1.05, 1.11) and the sum of the brominated THM4 (OR = 1.05; 95%CI: 1.02, 1.09). Larger ORs were detected for the sum of five haloacetic acids (i.e., HAA5) (OR = 1.12; 95%CI: 1.01, 1.25), dichloroacetic acid (OR = 1.25; 95%CI: 1.01, 1.41) and trichloroacetic acid (OR = 1.21; 95%CI: 1.07, 1.37). We detected larger SGA risks for several THM4 among the prospective cohort and case-control studies compared to retrospective cohorts and for the SGA3/5% (vs. SGA10%) studies. The THM4 meta-regression showed associations between SGA and the total quality score based on categorical or continuous measures. For example, an OR of 1.03 (95%CI: 1.01, 1.06) was detected for each 10-point increase in the study quality score based on our systematic review. CONCLUSIONS We detected a small increased risk of SGA based on 18 THM4 study populations that was comparable to a previous meta-analysis of eight THM4 study populations. We also found increased risks for other THM4 and HAA measures not previously examined; these results were robust after accounting for outliers, publication bias, type of SGA classification, different exposure windows, and other factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - B Rahman
- University of Sydney, School of Public Health and University Centre for Rural Health, Australia
| | - G G Morgan
- University of Sydney, School of Public Health and University Centre for Rural Health, Australia
| | - G Beresin
- Massachusetts Department of Public Health, USA
| | - C Moreno
- Oak Ridge Associated Universities, USA
| | - J M Wright
- US EPA, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, USA.
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Cuthbertson AA, Liberatore HK, Kimura SY, Allen JM, Bensussan AV, Richardson SD. Trace Analysis of 61 Emerging Br-, Cl-, and I-DBPs: New Methods to Achieve Part-Per-Trillion Quantification in Drinking Water. Anal Chem 2020; 92:3058-3068. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amy A. Cuthbertson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Hannah K. Liberatore
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Susana Y. Kimura
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Joshua M. Allen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Alena V. Bensussan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Susan D. Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
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9
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Wang Y, Zhu G, Engel B. Health risk assessment of trihalomethanes in water treatment plants in Jiangsu Province, China. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2019; 170:346-354. [PMID: 30544095 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 12/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Probabilistic lifetime cancer risks and non-cancer risks of trihalomethanes (THMs) through ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation exposure in 88 drinking water treatment plants (WTPs) with raw waters from five water systems (WSs) in Jiangsu Province were analyzed and compared. Concentrations of THMs in finished water of study WTPs varied, ranging from 18.81 to 38.96 μg/L, which are lower than the maximum of 80 μg/L recommended by USEPA. The results of health risk assessment indicated that cancer risk as well as non-cancer risks of THMs in WTPs sourced from five water systems decreased in the order of WS3 > WS5 > WS2 > WS1 > WS4. The comparison among multiple exposure routes indicated that when non-boiled drinking water is consumed, ingestion has the highest exposure route, with exposure values greater than dermal contact and inhalation for WTPs with raw water from all five water systems. However, when drinking boiled water, dermal contact is the major risk source for WTPs with raw water from WS1 and WS2, instead of dermal contact, inhalation becomes the major risk source for WTPs with raw water from WS3, WS4, and WS5. In WTPs with raw water from water systems WS1, WS3, WS4, and WS5, dibromochloromethane (DBCM) in THMs has the highest contribution to cancer risk, while chloroform in THMs has the highest contribution to non-cancer risk. However, in WTPs with raw water from water system WS2, bromodichloromethane (BDCM) has the highest contribution to both cancer risk and non-cancer risk. The results also indicated that females are prone to cancer risk induced by THMs since Chinese people are accustomed to drinking boiled water. The results supply valuable information for health departments to put forward more specific and efficient policies to control water borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumin Wang
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, 2#, Sipailou Street, Nanjing City, Jiangsu Province 210096, China.
| | - Guangcan Zhu
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, 2#, Sipailou Street, Nanjing City, Jiangsu Province 210096, China.
| | - Bernard Engel
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Purdue University, 225 S. University Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2093, US.
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Benmarhnia T, Delpla I, Schwarz L, Rodriguez MJ, Levallois P. Heterogeneity in the Relationship between Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water and Cancer: A Systematic Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15050979. [PMID: 29757939 PMCID: PMC5982018 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15050979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The epidemiological evidence demonstrating the effect of disinfection by-products (DBPs) from drinking water on colon and rectal cancers is well documented. However, no systematic assessment has been conducted to assess the potential effect measure modification (EMM) in the relationship between DBPs and cancer. The objective of this paper is to conduct a systematic literature review to determine the extent to which EMM has been assessed in the relationship between DBPs in drinking water in past epidemiological studies. Selected articles (n = 19) were reviewed, and effect estimates and covariates that could have been used in an EMM assessment were gathered. Approximately half of the studies assess EMM (n = 10), but the majority of studies only estimate it relative to sex subgroups (n = 6 for bladder cancer and n = 2 both for rectal and colon cancers). Although EMM is rarely assessed, several variables that could have a potential modification effect are routinely collected in these studies, such as socioeconomic status or age. The role of environmental exposures through drinking water can play an important role and contribute to cancer disparities. We encourage a systematic use of subgroup analysis to understand which populations or territories are more vulnerable to the health impacts of DBPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarik Benmarhnia
- Department of Family Medicine and Public Health & Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Ianis Delpla
- École Supérieure D'aménagement du Territoire et de Développement Régional (ESAD), Université Laval, 1624 Pavillon Savard, Québec, QC G1K-7P4, Canada.
| | - Lara Schwarz
- Department of Family Medicine and Public Health & Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Manuel J Rodriguez
- École Supérieure D'aménagement du Territoire et de Développement Régional (ESAD), Université Laval, 1624 Pavillon Savard, Québec, QC G1K-7P4, Canada.
| | - Patrick Levallois
- Direction de la Santé Environnementale et de la Toxicologie, Institut National de Santé Publique du Québec, Québec, QC G1V 5B3, Canada.
- Axe Santé des Populations et Pratiques Optimales en Santé, Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) de Québec, Québec, QC G1V 2M2, Canada.
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Parvez S, Frost K, Sundararajan M. Evaluation of Drinking Water Disinfectant Byproducts Compliance Data as an Indirect Measure for Short-Term Exposure in Humans. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2017; 14:ijerph14050548. [PMID: 28531123 PMCID: PMC5451998 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14050548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In the absence of shorter term disinfectant byproducts (DBPs) data on regulated Trihalomethanes (THMs) and Haloacetic acids (HAAs), epidemiologists and risk assessors have used long-term annual compliance (LRAA) or quarterly (QA) data to evaluate the association between DBP exposure and adverse birth outcomes, which resulted in inconclusive findings. Therefore, we evaluated the reliability of using long-term LRAA and QA data as an indirect measure for short-term exposure. Short-term residential tap water samples were collected in peak DBP months (May–August) in a community water system with five separate treatment stations and were sourced from surface or groundwater. Samples were analyzed for THMs and HAAs per the EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) standard methods (524.2 and 552.2). The measured levels of total THMs and HAAs were compared temporally and spatially with LRAA and QA data, which showed significant differences (p < 0.05). Most samples from surface water stations showed higher levels than LRAA or QA. Significant numbers of samples in surface water stations exceeded regulatory permissible limits: 27% had excessive THMs and 35% had excessive HAAs. Trichloromethane, trichloroacetic acid, and dichloroacetic acid were the major drivers of variability. This study suggests that LRAA and QA data are not good proxies of short-term exposure. Further investigation is needed to determine if other drinking water systems show consistent findings for improved regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahid Parvez
- Department of Environmental Health Science, Indiana University Fairbanks School of Public Health, 1050 Wishard Boulevard, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
| | - Kali Frost
- Department of Environmental Health Science, Indiana University Fairbanks School of Public Health, 1050 Wishard Boulevard, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
| | - Madhura Sundararajan
- Department of Epidemiology, Indiana University Fairbanks School of Public Health, 1050 Wishard Boulevard, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
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Wright JM, Evans A, Kaufman JA, Rivera-Núñez Z, Narotsky MG. Disinfection By-Product Exposures and the Risk of Specific Cardiac Birth Defects. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2017; 125:269-277. [PMID: 27518881 PMCID: PMC5289901 DOI: 10.1289/ehp103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 06/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epidemiological studies suggest that women exposed to disinfection by-products (DBPs) have an increased risk of delivering babies with cardiovascular defects (CVDs). OBJECTIVE We examined nine CVDs in relation to categorical DBP exposures including bromoform, chloroform, dibromochloromethane (DBCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), monobromoacetic acid (MBAA), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA), trichloroacetic acid (TCAA), and summary DBP measures (HAA5, THMBr, THM4, and DBP9). METHODS We calculated adjusted odds ratios (aORs) in a case-control study of birth defects in Massachusetts with complete quarterly 1999-2004 trihalomethane (THM) and haloacetic acid (HAA) data. We randomly matched 10 controls each to 904 CVD cases based on week of conception. Weight-averaged aggregate first-trimester DBP exposures were assigned to individuals based on residence at birth. RESULTS We detected associations for tetralogy of Fallot and the upper exposure categories for TCAA, DCAA, and HAA5 (aOR range, 3.34-6.51) including positive exposure-response relationships for DCAA and HAA5. aORs consistent in magnitude were detected between atrial septal defects and bromoform (aOR = 1.56; 95% CI: 1.01, 2.43), as well as DBCM, chloroform, and THM4 (aOR range, 1.26-1.67). Ventricular septal defects (VSDs) were associated with the highest bromoform (aOR = 1.85; 95% CI: 1.20, 2.83), MBAA (aOR = 1.81; 95% CI: 0.85, 3.84), and DBCM (aOR = 1.54; 95% CI: 1.00, 2.37) exposure categories. CONCLUSIONS To our knowledge, this is the first birth defect study to develop multi-DBP adjusted regression models as well as the first CVD study to evaluate HAA exposures and the second to evaluate bromoform exposures. Our findings, therefore, inform exposure specificity for the consistent associations previously reported between THM4 and CVDs including VSDs. Citation: Wright JM, Evans A, Kaufman JA, Rivera-Núñez Z, Narotsky MG. 2017. Disinfection by-product exposures and the risk of specific cardiac birth defects. Environ Health Perspect 125:269-277; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/EHP103.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Michael Wright
- National Center for Environmental Assessment (NCEA), Office of Research and Development (ORD), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
- Address correspondence to J.M. Wright, U.S. EPA, National Center for Environmental Assessment, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr. (MS-A110), Cincinnati, OH 45268 USA. Telephone: (513) 569-7922. E-mail:
| | - Amanda Evans
- School of Osteopathic Medicine, Campbell University, Lillington, North Carolina, USA
| | - John A. Kaufman
- ASPPH/EPA Environmental Health Fellowship Program, hosted by NCEA, ORD, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Zorimar Rivera-Núñez
- Radiation Oncology, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Michael G. Narotsky
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, ORD, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
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Ma S, Gan Y, Chen B, Tang Z, Krasner S. Understanding and exploring the potentials of household water treatment methods for volatile disinfection by-products control: Kinetics, mechanisms, and influencing factors. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2017; 321:509-516. [PMID: 27669392 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.08.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2016] [Revised: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This study systematically evaluates the capabilities of five types of household water treatment (HWT) methods (including boiler heating, microwave irradiation, pouring, stirring, and shaking) on the removals of four regulated trihalomethanes (THM4) and three iodinated halomethanes (IHMs) under a variety of conditions simulative of residential uses. Overall, the results clearly showed promising capabilities of all five HWT methods in controlling volatile disinfection by-products (DBPs), and heating with a boiler was the most effective approach among all methods due to the synergistic effects of water turbulence and bubbling phenomena. A contemporary boiler equipped with an automatic switch-off function reduced on average 92% of seven halomethanes (HM7) at favourable conditions. The removal increased significantly with increasing initial concentrations and the rates correlated well with the logarithmic Henry's law constants and molecular weights of compounds, with triiodomethane being the most refractory species. Meanwhile, the importance of water handling habits was revealed, including power input, operation time, volume, heating/cooling speed, cooling method, and capping conditions. The findings hence explored the potentials of HWTs on DBP control and pointed out a potential limit to DBP epidemiology studies that do not consider water handling habits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengcun Ma
- Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, 518055 China
| | - Yiqun Gan
- Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, 518055 China
| | - Baiyang Chen
- Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, 518055 China.
| | - Zhong Tang
- Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, 518055 China
| | - Stuart Krasner
- Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, Water Quality Laboratory, 700 Moreno Avenue, La Verne, CA, USA
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Delpla I, Benmarhnia T, Lebel A, Levallois P, Rodriguez MJ. Investigating social inequalities in exposure to drinking water contaminants in rural areas. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2015; 207:88-96. [PMID: 26367702 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2015.08.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Revised: 08/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Few studies have assessed social inequalities in exposure to drinking water contaminants. This study explores this issue in 593 rural municipalities of Québec, Canada. Quartiles of an ecological composite deprivation index were used as a proxy of socioeconomic status. Total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) and lead were chosen as proxies of chemical drinking water quality. The results show that the majority of deprived rural municipalities apply no treatment to their water (26%) or use a basic treatment (51%), whereas a relative majority of the wealthiest municipalities (40%) use advanced treatment. The proportion of municipalities having important lead (>5 μg/L) levels is highest in most deprived municipalities. Moreover, most deprived municipalities have a higher risk of high tap lead levels (RR = 1.33; 95%CI: 1.30, 1.36). Conversely, most deprived municipalities have a lower risk of high TTHMs levels (RR = 0.78; 95%CI: 0.69, 0.86). These findings suggest an environmental inequality in drinking water contaminants distribution in rural municipalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ianis Delpla
- École supérieure d'aménagement du territoire et de développement régional (ESAD), Université Laval, 1624 Pavillon Savard, Québec, QC, G1K-7P4, Canada.
| | - Tarik Benmarhnia
- Institute for Health and Social Policy, McGill University, Meredith Charles House, 1130 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, QC, H3A 1A3, Canada
| | - Alexandre Lebel
- École supérieure d'aménagement du territoire et de développement régional (ESAD), Université Laval, 1624 Pavillon Savard, Québec, QC, G1K-7P4, Canada; Evaluation Platform on Obesity Prevention, Quebec Heart and Lung Institute, Québec, QC, G1K-7P4, Canada
| | - Patrick Levallois
- Direction de la santé environnementale et de la toxicologie, Institut National de Santé Publique du Québec, Québec, QC, G1V 5B3, Canada; Axe santé des populations et pratiques optimales en santé, Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier universitaire (CHU) de Québec, Québec, QC, G1V 2M2, Canada
| | - Manuel J Rodriguez
- École supérieure d'aménagement du territoire et de développement régional (ESAD), Université Laval, 1624 Pavillon Savard, Québec, QC, G1K-7P4, Canada
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15
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Andrianou XD, Charisiadis P, Andra SS, Makris KC. Spatial and seasonal variability of urinary trihalomethanes concentrations in urban settings. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2014; 135:289-295. [PMID: 25462678 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2014.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Revised: 09/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A complex network of sources and routes of exposure to disinfection by-products (DBP), such as trihalomethanes (THM) has been driving the wide variability of daily THM intake estimates in environmental epidemiological studies. We hypothesized that the spatiotemporal variability of THM exposures could be differentially expressed with their urinary levels among residents whose households are geographically clustered in district-metered areas (DMA) receiving the same tap water. Each DMA holds unique drinking-water pipe network characteristics, such as pipe length, number of pipe leaking incidences, number of water meters by district, average minimum night flow and average daily demand. The present study assessed the spatial and seasonal variability in urinary THM levels among residents (n=310) of geocoded households belonging to two urban DMA of Nicosia, Cyprus, with contrasting water network properties. First morning urine voids were collected once in summer and then in winter. Results showed that the mean sum of the four urinary THM analytes (TTHM) was significantly higher during summer for residents of both areas. Linear mixed effects models adjusted for age, season and gender, illustrated spatially-resolved differences in creatinine-adjusted urinary chloroform and TTHM levels between the two studied areas, corroborated by differences observed in their pipe network characteristics. Additional research is warranted to shed light on the contribution of spatially-resolved and geographically-clustered environmental exposures coupled with internal biomarker of exposure measurements towards better understanding of health disparities within urban centers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xanthi D Andrianou
- Water and Health Laboratory, Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with the Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Irenes 95, Limassol 3041, Cyprus
| | - Pantelis Charisiadis
- Water and Health Laboratory, Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with the Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Irenes 95, Limassol 3041, Cyprus
| | - Syam S Andra
- Water and Health Laboratory, Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with the Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Irenes 95, Limassol 3041, Cyprus
| | - Konstantinos C Makris
- Water and Health Laboratory, Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with the Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Irenes 95, Limassol 3041, Cyprus.
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Charisiadis P, Andra SS, Makris KC, Christodoulou M, Christophi CA, Kargaki S, Stephanou EG. Household cleaning activities as noningestion exposure determinants of urinary trihalomethanes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 48:770-780. [PMID: 24266582 DOI: 10.1021/es404220z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Previous epidemiological studies linking drinking water total trihalomethanes (THM) with pregnancy disorders or bladder cancer have not accounted for specific household cleaning activities that could enhance THM exposures. We examined the relation between household cleaning activities (washing dishes/clothes, mopping, toilet cleaning, and washing windows/surfaces) and urinary THM concentrations accounting for water sources, uses, and demographics. A cross-sectional study (n = 326) was conducted during the summer in Nicosia, Cyprus, linking household addresses to the geocoded public water pipe network, individual household tap water, and urinary THM measurements. Household tap water THM concentrations ranged between 3-129 μg L(-1), while the median (Q1, Q3) creatinine-adjusted urinary THM concentration in females (669 ng g(-1) (353, 1377)) was significantly (p < 0.001) higher than that in males (399 ng g(-1), (256, 681)). Exposure assessment, based on THM exposure equivalency units, showed that hand dishwashing, mopping, and toilet cleaning significantly (p < 0.001) increased urinary THM levels. The effect of dishwashing by females ≥36 y of age remained significant, even after adjusting for potential confounders. No significant (p > 0.05) association was observed between ingestion-based THM exposure equivalency units and urinary THM. Noningestion routes of THM exposures during performance of routine household cleaning activities were shown for the first time to exert a major influence on urinary THM levels. It is warranted that future pregnancy-birth cohorts include monitoring of noningestion household THM exposures in their study design.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Charisiadis
- Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology , Irenes 95, Limassol, 3041, Cyprus
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