Matrine ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by modulating chemokines and their receptors

Matrine Impairs Platelet Function and Thrombosis and Inhibits ROS Production

Matrine is a naturally occurring alkaloid and possesses a wide range of pharmacological properties, such as anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory effects. However, whether it affects platelet function and thrombosis remains unclear. This study aims to evaluate the effect of matrine on platelet function and thrombus formation. Human platelets were treated with matrine (0–1 mg/ml) for 1 h at 37°C followed by measuring platelet aggregation, granule secretion, receptor expression by flow cytometry, spreading and clot retraction. In addition, matrine (10 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally into mice to measure tail bleeding time, arterial and venous thrombus formation. Matrine dose-dependently inhibited platelet aggregation and ATP release in response to either collagen-related peptide (Collagen-related peptide, 0.1 μg/ml) or thrombin (0.04 U/mL) stimulation without altering the expression of P-selectin, glycoprotein Ibα, GPVI, or αIIbβ3. In addition, matrine-treated platelets presented significantly decreased spreading on fibrinogen or collagen and clot retraction along with reduced phosphorylation of c-Src. Moreover, matrine administration significantly impaired the in vivo hemostatic function of platelets, arterial and venous thrombus formation. Furthermore, in platelets stimulated with CRP or thrombin, matrine significantly reduced Reactive oxygen species generation, inhibited the phosphorylation level of ERK1/2 (Thr202/Tyr204), p38 (Thr180/Tyr182) and AKT (Thr308/Ser473) as well as increased VASP phosphorylation (Ser239) and intracellular cGMP level. In conclusion, matrine inhibits platelet function, arterial and venous thrombosis, possibly involving inhibition of ROS generation, suggesting that matrine might be used as an antiplatelet agent for treating thrombotic or cardiovascular diseases.

Illumination of Molecular Pathways in Multiple Sclerosis Lesions and the Immune Mechanism of Matrine Treatment in EAE, a Mouse Model of MS

The etiology of multiple sclerosis (MS) is not clear, and the treatment of MS presents a great challenge. This study aimed to investigate the pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets of MS and to define target genes of matrine, a quinolizidine alkaloid component derived from the root of Sophorae flavescens that effectively suppressed experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS. To this end, the GSE108000 gene data set in the Gene Expression Omnibus Database, which included 7 chronic active MS lesions and 10 control samples of white matter, was analyzed for differentially expressed genes (DEGs). X cell was used to analyze the microenvironmental differences in brain tissue samples of MS patients, including 64 types of immune cells and stromal cells. The biological functions and enriched signaling pathways of DEGs were analyzed by multiple approaches, including GO, KEGG, GSEA, and GSVA. The results by X cell showed significantly increased numbers of immune cell populations in the MS lesions, with decreased erythrocytes, megakaryocytes, adipocytes, keratinocytes, endothelial cells, Th1 cells and Tregs. In GSE108000, there were 637 DEGs, including 428 up-regulated and 209 down-regulated genes. Potential target genes of matrine were then predicted by the network pharmacology method of Traditional Chinese medicine, and 12 key genes were obtained by cross analysis of the target genes of matrine and DEGs in MS lesions. Finally, we confirmed by RT-PCR the predicted expression of these genes in brain tissues of matrine-treated EAE mice. Among these genes, 2 were significantly downregulated and 6 upregulated by matrine treatment, and the significance of this gene regulation was further investigated. In conclusion, our study defined several possible matrine target genes, which can be further elucidated as mechanism(s) of matrine action, and novel targets in the treatment of MS.

Matrine-Family Alkaloids: Versatile Precursors for Bioactive Modifications

Matrine-family alkaloids as tetracycloquinolizindine analogues from Traditional Chinese Medicine Sophora flavescens Ait, Sophora subprostrata and Sophora alopecuroides L possess various pharmacological activities and have aroused great interests over the past decades. Especially, a lot of matrine derivatives have been designed and synthesized and their biological activities investigated, and encouraging results have continuously been achieved in recent several years. These studies are helpful to develop more potent candidates or therapeutic agents and disclose their molecular targets and mechanisms. This paper reviews recent advances in the bioactive modifications of matrine-family alkaloids from derivatization of the C-13, C-14 or C-15 position, opening D ring, fusing D ring and structural simplification.

Modulation of the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in the CNS by matrine in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

The inflammatory mediator high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1)-induced signaling pathway has been shown to play an important role in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Matrine (MAT), a quinolizidine alkaloid component derived from the root of Sophorae flavescens, has the capacity to effectively suppress EAE. However, the impact of MAT treatment on HMGB1-induced signaling is not known. In the present study, we show that MAT treatment alleviated disease severity of ongoing EAE, reduced inflammatory infiltration and demyelination, and reduced the production of inflammatory factors including TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β in the CNS. Moreover, MAT administration significantly reduced the protein and RNA expression of HMGB1 and TLR4 in the spinal cord, particularly in astrocytes and microglia/infiltrating macrophages. The expression of MyD88 and TRAF6, and the phosphorylation of NF-κB p65, was also down-regulated after MAT treatment. In contrast, the level of IκB-α, an inhibitory molecule for NF-κB activation, was significantly increased. Furthermore, the direct inhibitory effect of MAT on HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling in macrophages was further confirmed in vitro. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that MAT treatment alleviated CNS inflammatory demyelination and activation of astrocytes and microglia/macrophages in EAE rats, and that the mechanism underlying these effects may be closely related to modulation of HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Matrine alleviates astrogliosis through sphingosine 1-phosphate signaling in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Expression of sphingosine/sphingosine 1-phosphate (SPH/S1P) in resident cells of the central nervous system plays an important role in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). Accumulated evidence has shown the protective effects of S1P receptor modulators on MS and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). However, effective therapies to regulate SPH/S1P molecules themselves have not been well addressed. Our previous studies showed that matrine (MAT), a natural alkaloid component extracted from the Sophora root, has beneficial effects in EAE through immunomodulation. Here we demonstrate that MAT alleviated astrogliosis in the CNS of EAE rats, and downregulated levels of SPH, S1P and S1P1 expression in CNS tissues and astrocytes. Expression of SPH kinases (SPHK) 1 and 2, which splice SPH into S1P, was also inhibited by MAT treatment. In vitro studies showed a direct inhibitory effect of MAT on S1P1 expression of activated astrocytes, suggesting that MAT could function as an S1PRs antagonist. Moreover, MAT upregulated the expression of plasma gelsolin, which combines with S1P to reduce its concentration. These findings indicate that MAT could alleviate astrogliosis in EAE through diminishing the SPH/SPHK/S1P1 pathway.

A target-group-change couple with mass defect filtering strategy to identify the metabolites of "Dogel ebs" in rats plasma, urine and bile

"Dogel ebs" was known as Sophora flavescens Ait., a classical traditional Chinese Mongolian herbal medicine, which had the effects on damp-heat dysentery, scrofula, and syndrome of accumulated dampness toxicity. Although the chemical constituents have been clarified by our previous studies, the metabolic transformation of "Dogel ebs" in vivo was still unclear. To explore the mechanism of "Dogel ebs," the metabolites in plasma, bile, and urine samples were investigated. A fast positive and negative ion switching technology was used for the simultaneous determination of flavonoids and alkaloids in "Dogel ebs" in a single run. And a target-group-change coupled with mass defect filtering strategy was utilized to analyze the collected data. 89 parent compounds and 82 metabolites were characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography with quadrupole exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometry. Both phase I and phase II metabolites were observed and the metabolic pathways involved in oxidation, demethylation, acetylation, and glucuronidation. 69 metabolites of "Dogel ebs," including three hydroxyls bonding xanthohumol, formononetin-7-O-glucuronide, 2'-hydroxyl-isoxanthohumol decarboxylation metabolite, oxysophocarpine dehydrogen, 9α-hydroxysophoramine-O-glucuronide, etc. were reported for the first time.

Natural products as a potential modulator of microglial polarization in neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are characterized by the progressive loss of structure and function of neurons most common in elderly population, mainly including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and multiple sclerosis (MS). Neuroinflammation caused by microglia as the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) plays a contributory role in the onset and progression of NDs. Activated microglia, as in macrophages, to be heterogeneous, can polarize into M1 (pro-inflammatory) and M2 (anti-inflammatory) functional phenotypes. The former elaborate pro-inflammatory mediators promoting neuroinflammation and neuronal damage. In contrast, the latter generate anti-inflammatory mediators and neurotrophins that inhibit neuroinflammation and promote neuronal healing. Consistently, the regulation of microglial polarization from M1 to M2 phenotype appears as an outstanding therapeutic and preventive approach for NDs treatment. Although non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) currently used to alleviate M1 microglia-associated neuroinflammation responsible for the development of NDs, these drugs have different degrees of adverse effects and limited efficacy. As the advantages of novel structure, multi-target, high efficiency and low toxicity, natural products as the modulators of microglial polarization have attracted considerable concerns in the therapeutic areas of NDs. In this review, we mainly summarized the therapeutic potential of natural products and their various molecular mechanisms for NDs treatment through modulating microglial polarization. The aim of the current review is expected to be useful to develop innovative modulators of microglial polarization from natural products for the amelioration and treatment of NDs.

Pien Tze Huang Alleviates Relapsing-Remitting Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis Mice by Regulating Th1 and Th17 Cells

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS), characterized by infiltrating inflammatory cells and demyelinating lesions, and T helper (Th) cells play critical roles in the pathogenesis of MS. There is still lack of effective treatments currently. Pien Tze Huang (PZH), a traditional Chinese medicine formula, has been proved to have anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and immunoregulatory effects. However, whether PZH can be used to treat MS is still obscure. This study aimed to investigate the possible therapeutic effect and the underlying action mechanism of PZH in relapsing-remitting experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (RR-EAE) mice. Female SJL/J mice were immunized with myelin proteolipid protein 139–151 (PLP_139−151) and pertussis toxin to establish RR-EAE model. Mice were then randomly divided into normal group, model group, PZH group and positive control group (fingolimod, FTY-720), and drugs were orally administered for 60 days from the day 10 after immunization. Sera of mice were collected for ELISA detection. Tissues of CNS were harvested for hematoxylin-eosin (H-E) and luxol fast blue (LFB) staining. Furthermore, Th1, Th17 cells and their related cytokines in the CNS were detected by flow cytometry and quantitative real-time PCR, respectively. Proteins involved in STAT and NF-κB signaling pathways were detected by western blot. The results showed that PZH-treated mice displayed mild or moderate clinical symptoms compared with untreated EAE mice that exhibited severe clinical symptoms. PZH remarkably reduced inflammatory cell infiltration and myelin damage in the CNS of EAE mice. It markedly down-regulated the levels of IFN-γ and IL-17A in sera of EAE mice. Moreover, PZH could reduce the percentages of Th1 and Th17 cells. It also suppressed the production of transcription factors ROR-γt and T-bet as well as the mRNA levels of their downstream pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IFN-γ and IL-17A. Furthermore, PZH could inhibit the phosphorylation of some key proteins in the STAT and NF-κB signaling pathways. In conclusion, the study demonstrated that PZH had a therapeutic effect on RR-EAE mice, which was associated with the modulation effect on Th1 and Th17 cells.

The Beneficial Effect of Human Amnion Mesenchymal Cells in Inhibition of Inflammation and Induction of Neuronal Repair in EAE Mice

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Currently, there is still lack of curative treatment for MS. Mesenchymal stem cell- (MSC-) based therapy is recently the subject of intense interest in autoimmune diseases. Here, we investigated the therapeutic effect and potential mechanism of human amnion mesenchymal cells (hAMC) on inflammation and remyelination in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mice. C57BL/6 mice were immunized with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) 35-55 peptide. hAMC were injected intraperitoneal when EAE was successfully established. The results demonstrated that application of hAMC significantly ameliorated the disease severity and histopathological changes in EAE mice. The production of proinflammatory cytokines such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-17A in the spleen and CNS was dramatically inhibited. Moreover, CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells in the CNS were also significantly decreased in EAE mice after hAMC treatment. In addition, hAMC treatment also promoted the production of neuron-repair factors (NGF, CNTF, and BDNF) in the CNS of EAE mice. In conclusion, these results indicated that hAMC could attenuate the inflammation and promote the remyelination in EAE mice, which might be a promising cell source for the therapy of MS.

Neuroprotective effect of heat shock protein 60 on matrine-suppressed microglial activation

Matrine (MT) is the primary active alkaloid separated from members of the Sophora genus. Previous studies have reported that MT has anti-inflammatory effects in the central nervous system (CNS). However, the underlying molecular mechanism of the neuroprotective effect of MT remains unclear, particularly the role of heat shock protein 60 (HSP60). Microglia are macrophages in the CNS that serve an essential role in the innate immune system by producing various proinflammatory and neurotoxic factors. In addition, HSP60 is released by activated microglia causing an autoimmune response. The present study aimed to investigate whether MT could inhibit the activation of microglia via suppressing the HSP60 signaling pathway. The results demonstrated that the expression and release of HSP60 in LPS-activated BV2 microglial cells was significantly decreased by MT treatment. Extracellular HSP60 is a ligand of toll like receptor 4 (TLR-4); thus, it was hypothesized that secreted HSP60 could bind to TLR-4 on microglia and activate the TLR-4 signaling pathway. As expected, western blotting and ELISA results revealed that MT significantly inhibited the LPS-induced increase in TLR-4, myeloid differentiation primary response protein MyD88, caspase-3 and tumor necrosis factor-α. In conclusion, the results of the present study provide a novel direction for the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by microglial activation.

Matrine attenuates cardiac fibrosis by affecting ATF6 signaling pathway in diabetic cardiomyopathy

Cardiac function and compliance impairments are the features of cardiac fibrosis. Matrine shows therapeutic effects on cardiovascular diseases and organ fibrosis. In this study, we examined the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of matrine on cardiac fibrosis of DbCM. Matrine was administrated orally to rats with DbCM. Cardiac functions and compliance were evaluated. The collagen deposition was visualized by sirius red staining. Real-time PCR was used to determine the expression level of miRNA. Western blotting was performed to assess the protein expression. NFAT nuclear translocation was evaluated by fluorescent immunochemistry staining and Western blotting. Intracellular calcium level was assessed by fura-2/AM staining. A colorimetric method was used to determine calcineurin enzymatic activity. Impaired cardiac function and compliance were observed in rats with DbCM. Increased collagen deposition in cardiac tissue was found. Furthermore, ATF6 signaling was activated, leading to intracellular calcium accumulation and NFAT activation which further initiated ECM gene expressions. Matrine administration recovered cardiac function and improved compliance by exerting inhibitory effects against ATF6 signaling- induced fibrosis. The high- glucose incubation induced ATF6 signaling activation in cultured CFs to increase the synthesis of ECM. Matrine blocked the ATF6 signaling in CFs to inhibit ECM synthesis within non- cytotoxic concentrations. ATF6 signaling induced cardiac fibrosis was one of the mechanisms involved in DbCM, which was characterized by loss of cardiac compliance and functions. Matrine attenuated cardiac compliance and improved left ventricular functions by exerting therapeutic effects against cardiac fibrosis via affecting ATF6 signaling pathway.

Matrine ameliorates adriamycin-induced nephropathy in rats by enhancing renal function and modulating Th17/Treg balance

Matrine (MAT) is an active alkaloid extracted from Radix Sophora flavescens. The present study was to investigate whether MAT could effectively treat Adriamycin-induced nephropathy (AIN). AIN was induced in rats using a single injection of Adriamycin (ADR). Renal interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-10, IL-17 and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) levels, and the expression of forkhead box protein 3 (Foxp3) and retinoid-related orphan nuclear receptor γt (Rorγt) was measured. AIN rats developed severe albuminuria, hypoalbuminaemia, hyperlipidaemia and podocyte injury. Daily administration of MAT (100mg/kg or 200mg/kg) significantly prevented ADR-induced podocyte injury, decreased AIN symptoms and improved renal pathology manifestations. Of note, treatment with MAT (100mg/kg) plus prednisone (Pre, 5mg/kg) had equivalent efficacy to that of Pre alone (10mg/kg). Additional findings showed that ADR triggered a disordered cytokine network and abnormal expression of Foxp3 and Rorγt in rats, as reflected by increased levels of IL-6, IL-10, TGF-β, Rorγt and decreased levels of IL-10 and Foxp3. Interestingly, MAT weakened the disordered cytokine network and normalized the expression of Foxp3 and Rorγt. In addition, a significant negative correlation was observed between the values of Foxp3/Rorγt and renal pathology scores. Finally, MAT normalized regulatory T cells (Treg)/ T-helper17 cells (Th17) ratio in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of AIN rats. These data indicate MAT prevents AIN through the modification of disordered plasma lipids and recovery of renal function, and this bioactivity is at least partly attributed to the suppression of renal inflammation and the regulation of the Treg/Th17 imbalance.

Protective effects of matrine on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis via regulation of ProNGF and NGF signaling

Inflammation, demyelination, oligodendrocyte (OLG) death, and axonal degeneration are primary characteristics of multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). OLGs generate myelin sheaths that surround axons, while damage to OLGs leads to demyelination and neurological functional deficit. Matrine (MAT), a quinolizidine alkaloid derived from the herb Radix Sophorae Flave, has been recently found to effectively ameliorate clinical signs in EAE. Its therapeutic mechanism has, however, not been completely elucidated. In the present study, we found that MAT retarded the disease process, attenuated the clinical severity of EAE rats, ameliorated inflammation and demyelination, and suppressed the apoptosis of OLGs in the central nervous system (CNS) of EAE rats. In addition, MAT markedly blocked increased expression of the proNGF-p75(NTR) death signaling complex, which is known to mediate OLG death in EAE animals. At the same time, MAT also prevented a decrease in the levels of NGF and its receptor TrkA, which together mediate the cell survival pathway and differentiation of OLGs. ProNGF, NGF, and the downstream effector proteins play an important role in the growth, differentiation, and apoptosis of OLGs as well as the reparative response to neuronal damage. These findings thus indicate that MAT improves clinical severity of EAE in part by reducing OLG apoptosis via restoring the ratios of proNGF:NGF and the respective receptors p75(NTR):TrkA in vivo. Taken together, these results suggest that MAT may be a promising agent for MS treatment based on its protective effect on OLGs.