The role of calcium in health and disease

Unique Calcium Metabolism in Zoologic Companion Animal Species

Regardless of species, calcium, vitamin D, and parathyroid hormone physiology are intricately linked. However, there are many unique differences between taxa that may affect husbandry recommendations, common disease processes, and effective treatment. This article aims to provide a basic overview of calcium metabolism and physiology then specifically delve into unique attributes of calcium homeostasis in common zoologic companion animal species.

Nutritional Composition and Antinutritional Factors of Five Wild Edible Fruits Grown in the Mekdela District, South of Wollo, Ethiopia

This study was carried out to determine the mineral content and nutritional properties of five wild fruits Rhus vulgaris, Rosa abyssinica, Rhus natalensis, Euclea racemosa, and Ficus sur. The proximate composition parameters (moisture, ash, crude fiber, crude fat, and crude protein) and antinutritional factors were evaluated using methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists and elemental analysis using the atomic absorption spectroscopy technique. Among the five wild edible fruit species, Rhus vulgaris had the highest carbohydrate content (83.3 ± 0.28 g/100 g) and a high total energy (344.5 ± 2.21 kcal/100 g). Euclea racemosa was found to have the maximum ash content (12.8 ± 0.37 g/100 g), protein content (3.22 ± 0.01 g/100 g), and moisture (16.24 ± 0.003 g/100 g), respectively. Rhus natalensis showed the highest fiber content (9.54 ± 0.003 g/100 g). Mineral analysis showed that local wild fruits contained a considerable amount of minerals. The calcium concentration ranged from 99.51 mg/100 g in Euclea racemosa to 160.12 mg/100 g in Ficus sur. Potassium concentration varied from 54.34 mg/100 g in Euclea racemosa to 234 mg/100 g in Rhus vulgaris. Iron ranges from 21.4 mg/100 g in Rosa abyssinica to 41 mg/100 g in Rhus natalensis, and zinc ranges from 2.3 mg/100 g in Rhus vulgaris to 4.2 mg/100 g in Ficus sur. A high saponin content (2.12 mg/100 g) and a low tannin content (0.23 mg/100 g) were obtained in Rosa abyssinica. The phytate content (1.52 mg/100 g) and the oxalate content (0.9 mg/100 g) were high in Rhus natalensis. In conclusion, the present study shows that wild fruits can be used as food supplementation in food in a safe area.

Production, Composition and Nutritional Properties of Organic Milk: A Critical Review

Milk is one of the most valuable products in the food industry with most milk production throughout the world being carried out using conventional management, which includes intensive and traditional systems. The intensive use of fertilizers, antibiotics, pesticides and concerns regarding animal health and the environment have given increasing importance to organic dairy and dairy products in the last two decades. This review aims to compare the production, nutritional, and compositional properties of milk produced by conventional and organic dairy management systems. We also shed light on the health benefits of milk and the worldwide scenario of the organic dairy production system. Most reports suggest milk has beneficial health effects with very few, if any, adverse effects reported. Organic milk is reported to confer additional benefits due to its lower omega-6-omega-3 ratio, which is due to the difference in feeding practices, with organic cows predominantly pasture fed. Despite the testified animal, host, and environmental benefits, organic milk production is difficult in several regions due to the cost-intensive process and geographical conditions. Finally, we offer perspectives for a better future and highlight knowledge gaps in the organic dairy management system.

Supplementing Low-Sodium Bicarbonate-Calcic (Lete)® Water: Effects in Women on Bone and Systemic Metabolism

Calcium (Ca) represents about 40% of the total mineral mass, mainly in the bone, providing mechanical strength to the skeleton and teeth. An adequate Ca intake is necessary for bone growth and development in children and adolescents and for maintaining bone mineral loss in elderly age. Ca deficiency predisposes to osteopenia and osteoporosis. Healthy nutrition, including an adequate intake of Ca-rich food, is paramount to prevent and cure osteoporosis. Recently, several clinical studies have demonstrated that, in conditions of Ca dysmetabolism, Ca-rich mineral water is beneficial as a valuable source of Ca to be used as an alternative to caloric Ca-rich dairy products. Although promising, these data have been collected from small groups of participants. Moreover, they mainly regard the effect of Ca-rich mineral water on bone metabolism. In contrast, an investigation of the effect of Ca supplementation on systemic metabolism is needed to address the spreading of systemic metabolic dysfunction often associated with Ca dysmetabolism. In the present study, we analyzed urine and blood sera of 120 women in perimenopausal condition who were subjected for six months to 2l daily consumption of bicarbonate-calcium mineral water marketed under ®Lete. Remarkably, this water, in addition to being rich in calcium and bicarbonate, is also low in sodium. A complete set of laboratory tests was carried out to investigate whether the specific water composition was such to confirm the known therapeutic effects on bone metabolism. Second, but not least, urine and blood sera were analyzed using NMR-based metabolomic procedures to investigate, other than the action on Ca metabolism, potential system-wide metabolic effects. Our data show that Lete water is a valid supplement for compensating for Ca dysmetabolism and preserving bone health and integrity.

Association between a Calcium-to-Magnesium Ratio and Osteoporosis among Puerto Rican Adults

BACKGROUND

The ratio of calcium-to-magnesium intake (Ca:Mg) may be important for bone due to their competitive absorption. The Ca:Mg ratio has been related to health outcomes, but few studies have related it to bone.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this analysis was to examine associations between the Ca:Mg intake with bone mineral density (BMD) and osteoporosis among Puerto Rican adults.

METHODS

Adults, aged 47-79 y, from the Boston Puerto Rican Osteoporosis Study, with complete BMD and dietary data (n = 955) were included. BMD was assessed with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and diet by a food frequency questionnaire. Calcium and magnesium intakes from food were energy adjusted, and the Ca:Mg was calculated. Adjusted linear and logistic regression models were utilized for testing associations between Ca:Mg and bone outcomes.

RESULTS

Calcium intake was greater in the highest compared with lowest tertile, whereas magnesium intake was similar across tertiles. Mean BMD at hip sites was higher in the middle, compared with the lowest, tertile. Higher odds of osteoporosis were observed for the highest and lowest tertiles, compared with the middle tertile, after adjustment (T3 compared with T2 OR: 2.79; 95% CI: 1.47, 5.3; T1 compared with T2 OR: 2.01; 95% CI: 1.03, 3.92). Repeated analyses without supplement users (n = 432) led to stronger differences and ORs, but lost significance for some comparisons.

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary calcium and magnesium are important for bone, perhaps not independently. The Ca:Mg intake ratio appeared most protective within a range of 2.2-3.2, suggesting that a balance of these nutrients may be considered in recommendations for osteoporosis..

The role of dietary calcium in the etiology of childhood rickets in the past and the present

For more than two centuries, lack of sunlight has been understood to cause vitamin D deficiency and documented as a primary cause of rickets. As such, evidence of rickets in the archeological record has been used as a proxy for vitamin D status in past individuals and populations. In the last decade, a clinical global consensus has emerged wherein it is recognized that dietary calcium deficiency also plays a role in the manifestation of rickets and classic skeletal deformities may not form if dietary calcium is normal even if vitamin D is deficient. This disease is now clinically called "nutritional rickets" to reflect the fact that rickets can take calcium deficiency-predominant or vitamin D deficiency-predominant forms. However, there are currently no paleopathological studies wherein dietary calcium deficiency is critically considered a primary etiology of the disease. We review here the interplay of calcium, vitamin D, and phosphorous in bone homeostasis, examine the role of dietary calcium in human health, and critically explore the clinical literature on calcium deficiency-predominant rickets. Finally, we report a case of rickets from the late Formative Period (~2500-1500 years ago) of the Atacama Desert and argue the disease in this infant is likely an example of calcium deficiency-predominant rickets. We conclude that most archeological cases of rickets are the result of multiple micronutrient deficiencies that compound to manifest in macroscopic skeletal lesions. For clinicians, these factors are important for implementing best treatment practice, and for paleopathologists they are necessary for appropriate interpretation of health in past communities.

Development of a Paper-Based Analytical Method for the Colorimetric Determination of Calcium in Saliva Samples

A novel, rapid, and facile method for the colorimetric determination of calcium using micro-analytical paper-based devices (μ-PADs) was developed. The proposed analytical method utilizes the color differences developing, after the addition of calcium, on the surface of the devices because of the complexation reaction of calcium with Methylthymol Blue (MTB) at room temperature, in alkaline pH. The devices were manufactured with chromatographic paper, using wax barriers, and the analytical protocol was easily implemented without the need of any experimental apparatus except for a simple imaging device. The user must regulate the pH, add the solutions on the paper, and measure the color intensity of the formed Ca(II)-MTB complex with a flatbed scanner. The experimental conditions for optimum color development, the possible interfering substances, and the reliability of the paper devices in different preserving conditions were optimized, with satisfactory results. The method exhibited acceptable detection limits (2.9 mg L^-1) with sufficiently good precision, which varied from 4.2% (intra-day) to 6.4% (inter-day). Saliva samples from healthy volunteers were successfully analyzed, and the calcium levels were calculated in the range of 30.71 to 84.15 mg L^-1.

Leaf elemental composition analysis in spider plant [Gynandropsis gynandra L. (Briq.)] differentiates three nutritional groups

Understanding the genetic variability within a plant species is paramount in implementing a successful breeding program. Spider plant (Gynandropsis gynandra) is an orphan leafy vegetable and an extraordinary source of vitamins, secondary metabolites and minerals, representing an important resource for combatting malnutrition. However, an evaluation of the leaf elemental composition, using a worldwide germplasm collection to inform breeding programs and the species valorization in human nutrition is still lacking. The present study aimed to profile the leaf elemental composition of G. gynandra and depict any potential geographical signature using a collection of 70 advanced lines derived from accessions originating from Asia and Eastern, Southern and West Africa. The collection was grown in a greenhouse using a 9 × 8 alpha lattice design with two replications in 2020 and 2021. Inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry was used to profile nine minerals contents. A significant difference (p < 0.05) was observed among the lines for all nine minerals. Microelements such as iron, zinc, copper and manganese contents ranged from 12.59-430.72, 16.98-166.58, 19.04-955.71, 5.39-25.10 mg kg-1 dry weight, respectively, while the concentrations of macroelements such as potassium, calcium, phosphorus and magnesium varied in the ranges of 9992.27-49854.23, 8252.80-33681.21, 3633.55-14216.16, 2068.03-12475.60 mg kg-1 dry weight, respectively. Significant and positive correlations were observed between iron and zinc and calcium and magnesium. Zinc, calcium, phosphorus, copper, magnesium, and manganese represented landmark elements in the genotypes. Eastern and Southern African genotypes were clustered together in group 1 with higher phosphorus, copper and zinc contents than Asian and West African lines, which clustered in group 2 and were characterized by higher calcium, magnesium and manganese contents. An additional outstanding group 3 of six genotypes was identified with high iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese and calcium contents and potential candidates for cultivar release. The genotype × year interaction variance was greater than the genotypic variance, which might translate to phenotypic plasticity in the species. Broad-sense heritability ranged from low to high and was element-specific. The present results reveal the leaf minerals diversity in spider plant and represent a baseline for implementing a minerals-based breeding program for human nutrition.

Bioactive peptides of whey: obtaining, activity, mechanism of action, and further applications

Bioactive peptides derived from diverse food proteins have been part of diverse investigations. Whey is a rich source of proteins and components related to biological activity. It is known that proteins have effects that promote health benefits. Peptides derived from whey proteins are currently widely studied. These bioactive peptides are amino acid sequences that are encrypted within the first structure of proteins, which required hydrolysis for their release. The hydrolysis could be through in vitro or in vivo enzymatic digestion and using microorganisms in fermented systems. The biological activities associated with bio-peptides include immunomodulatory properties, antibacterial, antihypertensive, antioxidant and opioid, etc. These functions are related to general conditions of health or reduced risk of certain chronic illnesses. To determine the suitability of these peptides/ingredients for applications in food technology, clinical studies are required to evaluate their bioavailability, health claims, and safety of them. This review aimed to describe the biological importance of whey proteins according to the incidence in human health, their role as bioactive peptides source, describing methods, and obtaining technics. In addition, the paper exposes biochemical mechanisms during the activity exerted by biopeptides of whey, and their application trends.

Metabolomics and physiological analysis of the effect of calcium supplements on reducing bone loss in ovariectomized rats by increasing estradiol levels

BACKGROUND

Data from the 2010-2012 Chinese National Nutrition and Health Survey showed that the vast majority of postmenopausal women in China had dual deficiencies in calcium and estrogen.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to clarify whether calcium supplementation alleviated bone loss caused by calcium restriction combined with estrogen deficiency in rats.

METHODS

Forty-eight female rats aged 9 weeks were assigned to 4 groups and fed a low-calcium diet: sham-operated (SHAM-LC), ovariectomized (OVX-LC), and ovariectomized rats treated with 750 mg/kg (OVX-LC-M) or 2800 mg/kg CaCO3 (OVX-LC-H). CaCO3 or distilled water was administered orally for 13 weeks. Bone mineral density (BMD) and histomorphometry of the femur, serum biochemical parameters, and serum metabolites were analyzed.

RESULTS

The OVX-LC rats showed a significant increase in body weight and serum levels of lipid markers, a significant decrease in serum estradiol, calcium, phosphorus, and 25(OH)D levels, and deterioration of the femur. At 750 mg/kg and 2800 mg/kg, CaCO3 reduced the deterioration of trabecular bone and increased the trabecular area percentage (Tb.Ar %) and BMD of the femur. Serum estradiol levels increased in a dose-dependent manner after CaCO3 supplementation (p < 0.01). The administration of 2800 mg/kg CaCO3 decreased serum triglyceride and high-density lipoprotein levels (p < 0.05) and decreased the levels of the bone turnover markers osteocalcin, N-telopeptide of type I collagen and β-crosslaps. The results of the metabolomics analysis showed that the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway was closely related to calcium supplementation, and more DG (44:6 n3), LysoPC (22:2) and PE (P-34:3) and less Cer (d43:0) and PE-NMe2 (46:3) were produced.

CONCLUSIONS

The results clearly indicated that calcium supplementation was beneficial for decreasing bone loss in OVX-LC rats. The present study is the first to show that calcium supplementation increased the estradiol content in OVX-LC rats, and the effect of calcium on bone loss may be partially attributed to the increase in the estrogen level that subsequently induced the changes in metabolite levels, eventually increasing the bone mineral density to a relatively higher level to reduce bone deterioration.

Calcium: More Than Bone? Implications for Clinical Practice and Theory

Serum calcium is routinely screened, but rarely scrutinized in the context of normal, physiologic functioning. This brief review strives to explore the implications of serum calcium, suggests guidelines for its interpretation, and discusses the implications of high, low, and “normocalcemia” in the clinical setting. We find that serum Ca²⁺ concentrations are a valuable prognostic indicator in routine metabolic workups and advocate for greater attention, on behalf of the provider, to variations in a patient’s calcemic status. Variations in calcemic status are primarily tied to malignancy, impaired parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion, defects in vitamin D synthesis, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) fluctuation, genetic syndromes (DiGeorge syndrome) and calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) mutation. Prognostic implications for high and low serum Ca²⁺ include, but are not limited to, increased thromboembolic and major adverse cardiovascular event (MACE) risk, cardiac remodeling, hypertension, cognitive decline, and insulin resistance.

Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value of Different Species of Vespa Hornets

We genetically identified three different species of hornets and analyzed the nutrient compositions of their edible brood. Samples were collected from a commercial production unit in Shizong province of China and from forests near Andong City in Korea. The species were identified as Vespa velutina, V. mandarinia, and V. basalis from China and V. velutina from Korea. Farmed V. velutina and V. mandarinia were found to have similar protein contents, i.e., total amino acids, whereas V. basalis contained less protein. The V. velutina brood collected from the forest contained the highest amount of amino acids. Altogether 17 proteinogenic amino acids were detected and quantified with similar patterns of distribution in all three species: leucine followed by tyrosine and lysine being predominant among the essential and glutamic acid among the non-essential amino acids. A different pattern was found for fatty acids: The polyunsaturated fatty acid proportion was highest in V. mandarinia and V. basalis, but saturated fatty acids dominated in the case of V. velutina from two different sources. The high amounts of unsaturated fatty acids in the lipids of the hornets could be expected to exhibit nutritional benefits, including reducing cardiovascular disorders and inflammations. High minerals contents, especially micro minerals such as iron, zinc, and a high K/Na ratio in hornets could help mitigate mineral deficiencies among those of the population with inadequate nutrition.

Targeted nanomedicines for the treatment of bone disease and regeneration

Targeted delivery by either passive or active targeting of therapeutics to the bone is an attractive treatment for various bone related diseases such as osteoporosis, osteosarcoma, multiple myeloma, and metastatic bone tumors. Engineering novel drug delivery carriers can increase therapeutic efficacy and minimize the risk of side effects. Developmnet of nanocarrier delivery systems is an interesting field of ongoing studies with opportunities to provide more effective therapies. In addition, preclinical nanomedicine research can open new opportunities for preclinical bone-targeted drug delivery; nevertheless, further research is needed to progress these therapies towards clinical applications. In the present review, the latest advancements in targeting moieties and nanocarrier drug delivery systems for the treatment of bone diseases are summarized. We also review the regeneration capability and effective delivery of nanomedicines for orthopedic applications.

Assessment of Essential and Potentially Toxic Elements and Possible Health Risks in Hylocereus undatus and Punica granatum

This study evaluates essential and toxic element contents in dragon (Hylocereus undatus (Haworth) Britton and Rose) and pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) and possible health risks through the consumption of these fruits. Total concentrations of 15 chemical elements (Al, Br, Ca, Cd, Cl, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, and Zn) were determined by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) techniques. This study indicates that these fruits are a vital source of essential elements for human health. It is observed that Pb concentrations were higher in both fruits whereas Cd concentrations were slightly higher than WHO/FAO tolerable levels only in pomegranate. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of the chemical elements was within the maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI) values. Furthermore, target hazard quotient (THQ) values were also within the safe level (THQ < 1). However, the calculated target carcinogenic risk (TCR) values of Cd for pomegranate and Cr for dragon fruit were higher than the maximum limit (1.0 × 10^-4) for children. Finally, this study will create public awareness about micronutrient contents as well as metal contaminations of the studied fruits.

Ca2+ plays an antiviral role by increasing p53 expression to achieve protection against spring viraemia of carp virus infection

Calcium (Ca) is a messenger that regulates a multitude of physiological processes, but its functions in antiviral progress remain undefined. In this study, we found that Ca2+ enhances fish survival to defend against spring viraemia of carp virus (SVCV) infection by reversing the instability of p53 mediated by the viral protein. First, Ca2+ significantly protected cells and fish against SVCV infection by inducing early apoptosis. Additionally, p53 expression, which was inhibited by SVCV N protein, was upregulated by Ca2+ treatment. Then, the mechanism underlying the reduction of K63-linked p53 ubiquitination by SVCV N protein via the K358 site was completely prevented by Ca2+. These findings reveal the role of Ca2+ in lower vertebrates in the antiviral response, which is connected to and corresponds with viral immune evasion, providing a solution to fish diseases caused by pathogens.

Facile preparation of a Ca(ii) carboxymethyl cellulose complex with enhanced calcium bioavailability for treatment of osteoporosis

At present, though calcium (Ca) reagents with high calcium contents are widely synthesized, their wide application is limited due to their low absorption rates and poor bioavailability. Here we use a carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) derivative with high water solubility and biocompatibility as a ligand to bind Ca2+. The resulting CaCMC complex exhibits remarkable solubility and absorbability under both basic and acidic conditions as well as in stomach mimicking and the gastrointestinal tract. Importantly, this Ca reagent shows high in vivo calcium bioavailability. Data from osteoporosis mouse models show that the CaCMC complex is superior to calcium carbonate in the treatment of osteoporosis. Therefore, the resulting CaCMC complex is used as a new, highly effective and desirable Ca supplement for daily life and clinical applications.

Potential of Food Hydrolyzed Proteins and Peptides to Chelate Iron or Calcium and Enhance their Absorption

Iron and calcium are two essential micronutrients that have strong effects on nutrition and human health because of their involvement in several biological and redox processes. Iron is responsible for electron and oxygen transport, cell respiration, and gene expression, whereas calcium is responsible for intracellular metabolism, muscle contraction, cardiac function, and cell proliferation. The bioavailability of these nutrients in the body is dependent on enhancers and inhibitors, some of which are found in consumed foods. Hydrolyzed proteins and peptides from food proteins can bind these essential minerals in the body and facilitate their absorption and bioavailability. The binding is also important because excess free iron will increase oxidative stress and the risks of developing chronic diseases. This paper provides an overview of the function of calcium and iron, and strategies to enhance their absorption with an emphasis on hydrolyzed proteins and peptides from foods. It also discusses the relationship between the structure of peptides and their potential to act as transition metal ligands.

Microencapsulation of Phosphorylated Human-Like Collagen-Calcium Chelates for Controlled Delivery and Improved Bioavailability

The bioavailability of Phosphorylated Human-like Collagen-calcium chelates (PHLC-Ca) as calcium supplement is influenced by the extremely low pH and proteolytic enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract. This study addresses these issues by microencapsulation technology using alginate (ALG) and chitosan (CS) as wall materials. The different ratio of ALG to PHLC-Ca on microcapsules encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) was evaluated and 1:1/2 was selected as the optimal proportion. The microcapsules were micron-sized and spherical in shape. PHLC-Ca was successfully entrapped into the matrix of ALG through forming intermolecular hydrogen bonding or other interactions. The confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) indicated that CS was coated on ALG microspheres. The MTT assay exhibited that CS/ALG-(PHLC-Ca) microcapsules extracts were safe to L929. The animal experiment showed that CS/ALG-(PHLC-Ca) microcapsules was superior to treating osteoporosis than PHLC-Ca. These results illustrated that the bioavailability of PHLC-Ca was improved by microencapsulated.

RNA-seq analysis of the kidneys of broiler chickens fed diets containing different concentrations of calcium

Calcium (Ca) is required for normal growth and is involved in cellular physiology, signal transduction, and bone mineralization. In humans, inadequate Ca intake causes hypocalcaemia, and excessive Ca intake causes hypercalcemia. In chicken, Ca is also required for body weight gain and eggshell formation. However, transcriptomic responses to low/high Ca intake, and mechanisms affecting body weight have not been explored. In this study, we performed comparative RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) using the kidney of broiler chickens fed diets containing 0.8, 1.0, and 1.2% Ca. Annotation of RNA-seq data revealed a significant number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the kidney via pairwise comparison using Cufflinks and edgeR. Using edgeR, we identified 12 DEGs; seven overlapped with those found by cufflinks. Seven DEGs were validated by real-time quantitative-PCR (qRT-PCR) in Ca-supplemented kidneys, and the results correlated with the RNA-seq data. DEGs identified by cufflinks/edgeR were subjected to pathway enrichment, protein/protein interaction, and co-occurrence analyses to determine their involvement in disease. The National Research Council (NRC) recommended Ca intake for 21-day post-hatch broilers is about 1.0%. Our findings suggest that higher-than-recommended Ca intake (1.2%) could reduce body weight gain in broilers, and that affected DEGs are related to stress-induced diseases, such as hypertension.

A Comparison of the Nutritional Value of Cow's Milk and Nondairy Beverages

OBJECTIVES

Nondairy beverages are advertised as a healthy alternative to cow's milk. There is an increased availability and consumption of nondairy beverages and a decrease in consumption of cow's milk. The aim of the present study is to review and compare the contents and nutritional value of nondairy beverages to cow's milk.

METHODS

Information about the nondairy beverages on the shelves at stores in Buffalo, New York was collected. The Web pages of several manufacturers were assessed for product contents. The nutrient contents including the protein quality of the nondairy beverages and cow's milk were compared. The nutrient contents of nondairy beverages and cow's milk were also compared to recommended dietary allowance or adequate intake for toddlers and young children.

RESULTS

Commonly available nondairy beverages are derived from almond, cashew, coconut, hazelnut, hemp, oat, rice, and soy. Cow's milk has higher protein content and quality compared with most of these products. It was noted that most of these beverages are fortified with calcium and vitamin D. The bioavailability of these substances after fortification is, however, not available.

CONCLUSIONS

Nondairy milk beverages vary in their nutritional profiles. These should not be considered nutritional substitutes for cow's milk until nutrient quality and bioavailability are established.

Vitamin D status in wild toque macaques (Macaca sinica) in Sri Lanka

The vitamin D receptor is found on most cells, including active immune cells, implying that vitamin D has important biological functions beyond calcium metabolism and bone health. Although captive primates should be given a dietary source of vitamin D, under free-living conditions vitamin D is not a required nutrient, but rather is produced in skin when exposed to UV-B light. The circulating level of 25 hydroxyvitamin D (25-OH-D) considered adequate for humans is a topic of current controversy. Levels of circulating 25-OH-D sufficient for good health for macaques and other Old World anthropoids are assumed to be the same as human values, but data from free-living animals are scant. This study reports values for 25-OH-D and the active vitamin D metabolite, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25[OH]₂ D) for wild, forest-ranging toque macaques (Macaca sinica) in Sri Lanka. Plasma samples were obtained from eight adult males, seven juvenile males, six young nulliparous females, nine adult females not pregnant or lactating, eleven lactating adult females, and four pregnant females. Mean values for the complete sample were 61.3 ± 4.0 ng/ml for 25-OH-D and 155.6 ± 8.7 pg/ml for 1,25[OH]₂ D. There were no significant differences for either metabolite among age and sex classes, nor between lactating and non-reproductive females. Values from the literature for circulating 25-OH-D in captive macaques are three times higher than those found in this wild population, however, 1,25[OH]₂ D values in captive animals were similar to the wild values. The data from this study indicate that anthropoid primates exposed to extensive sunlight will have circulating values of 25-OH-D generally above 30 ng/ml, providing some support for the Endocrine Society recommendations for humans. Current dietary vitamin D supplementation of captive macaques likely exceeds requirement. This may affect metabolism and immune function, with possible consequences for macaque health and biomedical research results.

Serum Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc and Copper Levels in Sudanese Women with Preeclampsia

Background

Although the exact pathophysiology of preeclampsia is not fully understood, several elemental micronutrient abnormalities have been suggested to play a contributory role in preeclampsia.

Aims

To investigate the levels of calcium, magnesium, zinc and copper in women with preeclampsia.

Subjects and Methods

A case—control study was conducted in Omdurman Maternity Hospital, Sudan, during the period of September through December 2014. The cases were women with preeclampsia while healthy pregnant women were the controls. The medical and obstetrics history was gathered using questionnaires. The serum levels of calcium, magnesium, zinc and copper were measured using atomic absorption spectrophotometer.

Results

There was no significant difference between the two groups in their age, gestational age, parity and body mass index. Zinc and copper levels were not significantly different between the two groups. In comparison with the controls, women with preeclampsia had a significantly lower median (inter-quartile) serum calcium [7.6 (4.0─9.6) vs. 8.1 (10.6─14.2), mg/dl, P = 0.032] and higher levels of magnesium [1.9 (1.4─2.5) vs. 1.4 (1.0─1.9) mg/dl; P = 0.003]. In binary logistic regression, lower calcium (OR = 0.73, 95% CI = 0.56 ─ 0.95, P = 0.021) and higher magnesium (OR = 5.724, 95% CI = 1.23 ─ 26.50, P = 0.026) levels were associated with preeclampsia. There were no significant correlations between levels of hemoglobin and these trace elements.

Conclusion

The current study showed significant associations between preeclampsia and serum levels of calcium and magnesium.

Milk and dairy products: good or bad for human health? An assessment of the totality of scientific evidence

Background

There is scepticism about health effects of dairy products in the public, which is reflected in an increasing intake of plant-based drinks, for example, from soy, rice, almond, or oat.

Objective

This review aimed to assess the scientific evidence mainly from meta-analyses of observational studies and randomised controlled trials, on dairy intake and risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, cancer, and all-cause mortality.

Results

The most recent evidence suggested that intake of milk and dairy products was associated with reduced risk of childhood obesity. In adults, intake of dairy products was shown to improve body composition and facilitate weight loss during energy restriction. In addition, intake of milk and dairy products was associated with a neutral or reduced risk of type 2 diabetes and a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, particularly stroke. Furthermore, the evidence suggested a beneficial effect of milk and dairy intake on bone mineral density but no association with risk of bone fracture. Among cancers, milk and dairy intake was inversely associated with colorectal cancer, bladder cancer, gastric cancer, and breast cancer, and not associated with risk of pancreatic cancer, ovarian cancer, or lung cancer, while the evidence for prostate cancer risk was inconsistent. Finally, consumption of milk and dairy products was not associated with all-cause mortality. Calcium-fortified plant-based drinks have been included as an alternative to dairy products in the nutrition recommendations in several countries. However, nutritionally, cow's milk and plant-based drinks are completely different foods, and an evidence-based conclusion on the health value of the plant-based drinks requires more studies in humans.

Conclusion

The totality of available scientific evidence supports that intake of milk and dairy products contribute to meet nutrient recommendations, and may protect against the most prevalent chronic diseases, whereas very few adverse effects have been reported.

Opinions and Practice of US-Based Obstetrician-Gynecologists regarding Vitamin D Screening and Supplementation of Pregnant Women

Vitamin D deficiency/insufficiency is prevalent among pregnant women. Recommendations for adequate levels of circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D and appropriate vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy differ between the Institute of Medicine and the Endocrine Society. Obstetrician-gynecologists must make clinical decisions in this environment of uncertain guidance. An online questionnaire regarding physician practice patterns for screening and supplementing pregnant women was administered to 225 randomly selected practicing obstetrician-gynecologists of whom 101 (45%) completed the questionnaire. A majority indicated that vitamin D insufficiency was a problem in their patient population (68.4%) and that most of their pregnant patients would benefit from vitamin D supplementation (66.3%). Half (52.5%) would recommend vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy to some patients, but only 16.8% to all. Only one in four (25.8%) routinely screen their pregnant patients for vitamin D status. Physicians who indicated that vitamin D status was a problem in their patient population were more likely to screen routinely (32.8% versus 9.7%, P = 0.002) and believe their patients would benefit from supplementation (91.2% versus 16.1%, P = 0.001). Opinion regarding supplementation levels and indicators of adequacy were split between the two competing recommendations, suggesting that clinical practice will likely remain variable across physicians, with uncertain public health consequences.

The role of micronutrients in the risk of urinary tract cancer

Prostate, bladder and kidney cancers remain the most common urological malignancies worldwide, and the prevention and treatment of these diseases pose a challenge to clinicians. In recent decades, many studies have been conducted to assess the association between supplementation with selected vitamins and elements and urinary tract tumour initiation and development. Here, we review the relationship between vitamins A, B, D, and E, in addition to calcium, selenium, and zinc, and the risk of developing prostate, kidney and bladder cancer. A relatively consistent body of evidence suggests that large daily doses of calcium (> 2,000 mg/day) increase the risk of prostate cancer. Similarly, supplementation with 400 IU/day of vitamin E carries a significant risk of prostate cancer. However, there have been many conflicting results regarding the effect of these nutrients on kidney and bladder neoplasms. Moreover, the role of other compounds in urinary tract carcinogenesis needs further clarification.

Growing Strong and Healthy with Mister Bone: An Educational Program to Have Strong Bones Later in Life

Optimal peak bone mass and bone health later in life are favored by a sufficient calcium intake in infancy, childhood and adolescence. The purpose of this study was to test a new educational program created to monitor and to improve calcium and vitamin D intake in children. Nutritional habits in children were evaluated through a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to assess the intake of calcium, vitamin D, dairy products, and total caloric energy at baseline and after seven months of exposure to a unique educational program applied between November 2013 and May 2014 in 176 schoolchildren (48% male, 52% female) attending the fourth and fifth grades of two selected primary schools in Florence, Italy. A significant increase of calcium (from 870 ± 190 to 1100 ± 200 mg/day, p < 0.05), and vitamin D (from 3.6 ± 1.53 to 4.1 ± 2 µg/day) intake in children was documented after the educational program. The amount of specific foods important for bone health consumed, such as milk and vegetables, increased significantly, both in male and female children (p < 0.05). The proposed educational program appears to be effective in modifying calcium intake in children, with a significant increase in the consumption of dairy products and vegetables, but without a significant change in the total caloric intake.

Hypoparathyroidism: Replacement Therapy with Parathyroid Hormone

Hypoparathyroidism (HypoPT) is characterized by low serum calcium levels caused by an insufficient secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH). Despite normalization of serum calcium levels by treatment with activated vitamin D analogues and calcium supplementation, patients are suffering from impaired quality of life (QoL) and are at increased risk of a number of comorbidities. Thus, despite normalization of calcium levels in response to conventional therapy, this should only be considered as an apparent normalization, as patients are suffering from a number of complications and calcium-phosphate homeostasis is not normalized in a physiological manner. In a number of recent studies, replacement therapy with recombinant human PTH (rhPTH(1-84)) as well as therapy with the N-terminal PTH fragment (rhPTH(1-34)) have been investigated. Both drugs have been shown to normalize serum calcium while reducing needs for activated vitamin D and calcium supplements. However, once a day injections cause large fluctuations in serum calcium. Twice a day injections diminish fluctuations, but don't restore the normal physiology of calcium homeostasis. Recent studies using pump-delivery have shown promising results on maintaining normocalcemia with minimal fluctuations in calcium levels. Further studies are needed to determine whether this may improve QoL and lower risk of complications. Such data are needed before replacement with the missing hormone can be recommended as standard therapy.

Association between loop diuretic use and fracture risk

SUMMARY

Loop diuretic use has been shown to be associated with an increased fracture risk, but the findings have been inconsistent. The present meta-analysis suggests that loop diuretics show a significant positive association with the overall risk of total fractures and, specifically, hip fractures.

INTRODUCTION

Despite being widely used, there is limited, prospective randomized trial evidence regarding the skeletal effects of loop diuretics. Previous observational studies have reported conflicting findings regarding the association between loop diuretic use and the risk of fractures.

METHODS

This meta-analysis of observational studies assessed the association between loop diuretic use and the risk of fractures. The PubMed, EMBASE, and OVID databases were searched for prospective cohort and case-control studies. Relative risks (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were derived using random-effects models throughout the analysis.

RESULTS

Thirteen studies (4 cohort studies and 9 case-control studies) were included, involving 842,644 participants and 108,247 fracture cases. Compared with non-users, people who had taken loop diuretics had an approximately 15% higher risk of total fractures (95% CI, 1.04-1.26; p<0.01), with high heterogeneity between studies (I2=80.5%; p<0.01). The RR was 1.14 (95% CI, 1.08-1.19) for hip fractures and 0.99 (95% CI, 0.93-1.05) for lower arm or wrist fractures. The RR was 1.05 (95% CI, 1.00-1.11) in prospective cohort studies and 1.22 (95% CI, 1.00-1.44) in case-control studies. There was no evidence of publication bias.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that loop diuretics show a significant positive association with the overall risk of total fractures and hip fractures.

Minerals in the foods eaten by mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei)

Minerals are critical to an individual's health and fitness, and yet little is known about mineral nutrition and requirements in free-ranging primates. We estimated the mineral content of foods consumed by mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Mountain gorillas acquire the majority of their minerals from herbaceous leaves, which constitute the bulk of their diet. However, less commonly eaten foods were sometimes found to be higher in specific minerals, suggesting their potential importance. A principal component analysis demonstrated little correlation among minerals in food items, which further suggests that mountain gorillas might increase dietary diversity to obtain a full complement of minerals in their diet. Future work is needed to examine the bioavailability of minerals to mountain gorillas in order to better understand their intake in relation to estimated needs and the consequences of suboptimal mineral balance in gorilla foods.

Serum trace elements levels in preeclampsia and eclampsia: correlation with the pregnancy disorder

Preeclampsia and eclampsia are fatal medical complications of pregnancy accounting for 20-80 % of increased maternal death in developing countries. Their aetiologies are still under investigation. Serum trace elements have been suggested to be involved in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Aim of this study was to address the correlation of serum trace elements with preeclampsia and eclampsia. It was a comparative cross-sectional study conducted on conveniently recruited 44 preeclampsia, 33 eclampsia and 27 normotensive pregnant patients. Atomic absorption spectrometry was employed to analyse serum concentrations of Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn and Fe. Data were analysed by Student's t test, one-way analysis of variance and multinomial logistic and binary regression analyses. p < 0.05 was considered as a level of significance. In preeclampsia, the serum Ca and Mg were significantly lower than those in eclampsia, while Cu and Zn values were higher. Significant changes of Ca, Mg and Cu were noted among preeclampsia, eclampsia and pregnant control. Serum Ca and Mg indicated a positive association, and Cu gave a negative association in preeclampsia. Cu/Fe ratio was high in eclampsia. Significant correlations of Mg with Zn in eclampsia and Mg with Fe in preeclampsia and eclampsia were predicted. Significant changes in serum trace element levels were present in preeclampsia and eclampsia that may have a link with the pathogenesis of pregnancy disorder.

The relationship among hypertension, antihypertensive medications, and osteoporosis: a narrative review

Osteoporosis and hypertension are two frequent diseases among the aging population that share a similar etiopathology and often coexist. Moreover, treatment of hypertension affects bone mineral density and, therefore, can worsen osteoporosis. This narrative review considers the influence of the main etiologic factors that contribute to the development of hypertension and osteoporosis and examines the effect of the most often used antihypertensives on bones. A computerized literature search of relevant English publications regarding the etiology of hypertension and osteoporosis as well as the impact of antihypertensives on osteoporosis from 1996 to 2011 was completed in October 2011. The latest update in the search was performed from May to June 2012. The most relevant nongenetic factors in the etiology of osteoporosis and hypertension are low calcium intake, vitamin D and vitamin K deficiency, high consumption of sodium salt, and the effects of different forms of nitric oxide. Thiazide diuretics are the only antihypertensives that have a positive influence on bone mineral density. For other antihypertensive drugs, the data are conflicting, indicating that they may have a potentially negative or positive influence on bone mineral density and fracture risk reduction. Some studies did not find a correlation between the use of antihypertensives and bone mineral density. Due to the frequent coexistence of hypertension and osteoporosis, when selecting long-term antihypertensive therapy the potential effects of antihypertensive drugs on development, worsening, or improvement of osteoporosis should also be considered.

Daughter dearest: Sex-biased calcium in mother's milk among rhesus macaques

Mother's milk provides building blocks necessary for infant development and growth postnatally. Minerals in milk are particularly important for infant skeletal development and may reflect maternal characteristics that are associated with the capacity to synthesize milk and sex-specific developmental priorities of the infant. Using a large sample of mother-infant dyads assigned to the outdoor breeding colony at the California National Primate Research Center (N=104), we investigated the relationship of milk calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) concentrations and the ratio of Ca/P to maternal and infant characteristics and to other milk variables. Ca and P are largely associated with casein micelles, and as expected, both Ca and P were positively correlated with protein concentrations in milk. Neither Ca nor P concentrations were associated with maternal parity. Mothers rearing daughters tended to produce higher mean Ca concentration in milk, and consequently a higher Ca/P ratio, than did mothers rearing sons, even though protein concentration was not elevated. These results suggest that the Ca/P ratio in rhesus milk may have been under separate selective pressure from protein content to facilitate the accelerated rate of skeletal calcification that has been observed in female Macaca mulatta infants.

Assessing bone health in children and adolescents

During normal childhood and adolescence, the skeleton undergoes tremendous change. Utilizing the processes of modeling and remodeling, the skeleton acquires its adult configuration and ultimately achieves peak bone mass. Optimization of peak bone mass requires the proper interaction of environmental, dietary, hormonal, and genetic influences. A variety of acute and chronic conditions, as well as genetic polymorphisms, are associated with reduced bone density, which can lead to an increased risk of fracture both in childhood and later during adulthood. Bone densitometry has an established role in the evaluation of adults with bone disorders, and the development of suitable reference ranges for children now permits the application of this technology to younger individuals. We present a brief overview of the factors that determine bone density and the emerging role of bone densitometry in the assessment of bone mass in growing children and adolescents.

Dietary pattern and its association with the prevalence of obesity and related cardiometabolic risk factors among Chinese children

BACKGROUND

The association of dietary pattern with chronic diseases has been investigated widely in western countries. However, information is quite limited among children in China. Our study is aimed to identify the dietary patterns of Chinese children and examine their association with obesity and related cardiometabolic risk factors.

METHODS

A total of 5267 children were selected using multistage random sampling from 30 primary schools of 5 provincial capital cities in China. Dietary intake was derived from 24 hour dietary recall for three consecutive days. Anthropometric measurements, glucose and lipid profiles were obtained. Factor analysis combined with cluster analysis was used for identifying major dietary patterns. The associations of dietary patterns with obesity and related cardiometabolic risk factors were examined by logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

Three mutually exclusive dietary patterns were identified, which were labeled as the healthy dietary pattern, the transitive dietary pattern, and the Western dietary pattern. Compared with children of the healthy dietary pattern, the multiple-adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence interval (CI)) of obesity were 1.11 (0.89-1.38) for children with the transitive dietary pattern and 1.80 (1.15-2.81) for children with the Western dietary pattern, which was 1.31 (95%CI 1.09-1.56) and 1.71 (95%CI: 1.13-2.56), respectively, for abdominal obesity. The Western dietary pattern was associated with significantly higher concentrations of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (P<.001), triglycerides (P<.001), systolic blood pressure (P = 0.0435) and fasting glucose (P = 0.0082) and a lower concentration of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (P = 0.0023), as compared with the healthy dietary pattern.

CONCLUSIONS

The Western dietary pattern characterized by red meat, eggs, refined grain and products, was positively associated with odds of obesity, the levels of plasma glucose, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides, and was inversely associated with the level of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

Blood lead, calcium, and phosphorus in women with preeclampsia in Edo State, Nigeria

The authors investigated the effect of blood lead (BPb) and its relationship with calcium and phosphorus in the development of preeclampsia in Nigeria. Blood samples were collected from 59 preclamptics, 150 normal pregnant, and 122 nonpregnant women. Blood lead and serum Ca and P were determined. Blood lead was significantly higher (p < .001), whereas serum Ca and P were significantly lower (p < .001) in preclamptics than in normal pregnant women (60.2 ± 12.8 vs 26.3 ± 8.0 μg/dL for Pb, 1.39 ± 0.33 vs 2.03 ± 0.22 mmol/L for Ca, and 0.76 ± 0.10 vs 0.99 ± 0.13 mmol/L for P, respectively). There was significant increase (p < .05) in BPb and decreases (p < .01) in serum Ca and P in pregnant women than in nonpregnant women (35.7 ± 18.0 vs 13.1 ± 6.4 μg/dL for Pb, 1.85 ± 0.33 vs 2.33 ± 0.20 mmol/L for Ca, and 0.93 ± 0.38 vs 1.24 ± 0.26 mmol/L for P). Also, BPb was negatively correlated with serum Ca and, P, and positively correlated with systolic and diastolic blood pressures in pregnancy (r = -.804 for Ca, r = -.728 for P, r = .908 for SBP, and r = .842 for DBP) and preeclampsia (p < .01). It appears that increase in blood lead, which parallels decreases in serum calcium and phosphorus, may be related to the development and progression of preeclampsia in this environment.

Postweaning low-calcium diet promotes later-life obesity induced by a high-fat diet

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a postweaning low-calcium diet on later obesity and explore the underlying mechanisms. Ninety-six male rats were weaned at 3 weeks of age, fed standard (STD: 0.50% calcium, n=48) and low-calcium (LC: 0.15% calcium, n=48) diets for 3 weeks, and then fed the standard diet for a 3-week washout period successively. Finally, the STD rats were divided into STD control and high-fat diet (HFD) groups, and the LC ones into LC control and LC+HFD (LCHF) groups. The STD and LC rats were fed the standard diet, while the HFD control and LCFD ones were fed a high-fat diet for 6 weeks to induce obesity. During the three feeding periods, adenosine-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and its responsive proteins phospho-acetyl-coA carboxylase, carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 and uncoupling protein 3 were persistently down-regulated in the LC group (decreased by 18%, 24%, 18% and 20%, respectively) versus the STD group, and these effects were significantly more pronounced in the LCHFD group (decreased by 21%, 30%, 23% and 25%, respectively) than the HFD group by a later high-fat stimuli, causing more fat and body weight in adulthood. However, lipolysis enzymes, serum leptin, insulin and lipids were not significantly affected until the body weight and fat content changed at 15 weeks of age. The results suggest that the low-calcium diet after weaning promotes rat adult-onset obesity induced by high-fat diet, which might be achieved by programming expressions of genes involved in AMPK pathway.

Calcium orthophosphates: occurrence, properties, biomineralization, pathological calcification and biomimetic applications

The present overview is intended to point the readers' attention to the important subject of calcium orthophosphates. This type of materials is of special significance for human beings, because they represent the inorganic part of major normal (bones, teeth and antlers) and pathological (i.e., those appearing due to various diseases) calcified tissues of mammals. For example, atherosclerosis results in blood vessel blockage caused by a solid composite of cholesterol with calcium orthophosphates, while dental caries and osteoporosis mean a partial decalcification of teeth and bones, respectively, that results in replacement of a less soluble and harder biological apatite by more soluble and softer calcium hydrogenphosphates. Therefore, the processes of both normal and pathological calcifications are just an in vivo crystallization of calcium orthophosphates. Similarly, dental caries and osteoporosis might be considered an in vivo dissolution of calcium orthophosphates. Thus, calcium orthophosphates hold a great significance for humankind, and in this paper, an overview on the current knowledge on this subject is provided.

Treated Hypertension has No Influence on the Efficacy of Alendronate in the Therapy of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis: A Non-Randomized, Non-Blind, Controlled Prospective Study

Changes in hormone metabolism during menopause are involved in the development of osteoporosis and arterial hypertension. A mutual influence of these two clinical pictures is evident on the basis of pathophysiological factors.In this study, we investigated whether a drug therapy of hypertension influences the efficacy of a bisphosphonate (alendronate) in the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. For this purpose, 60 female patients were enrolled in the study, 30 of them on drug treatment for hypertension in addition to requiring treatment for osteoporosis, while the control group was only suffering from osteoporosis.Bone density was measured at the start of the study and 6 months after therapy (QCT).A significant increase in bone density was demonstrated in both groups, while a difference between the groups could not be seen.Treated arterial hypertension does not have a negative influence on the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis with alendronate. Rather, the concomitant treatment of these two clinical pictures would appear to make sense, in order to reduce morbidity and mortality.

Microcontroller-based system for estimate of calcium in serum samples

In this study, a microcontroller-based control unit was designed and constructed for the estimation of serum calcium in blood samples. The proposed optoelectronic instrument used a red light emitting diode (LED) as a light source and photodiode as a sensor. The performance of the system was compared with that of a commercial instrument in measuring calcium ion. The quantitative analysis of calcium in a catalyst using arsenazo III as colorimetric reagent was used to test the device. The calibration curve for calcium binding with arsenazo III was drawn to check the range of linearity, which was between 0.1 to 4.5 mM L⁻¹. The limit of detection (LOD) is 0.05 mM L⁻¹. Absorbance changes over the pH range of 2-12 were determined to optimize the assay, with maximum absorption at pH 9.0. Interferences in absorbance from monovalent (K+ and Na+) and divalent (Mg²+) cations were also studied. The results show that the system works successfully.

The role of calcium, magnesium, and zinc in pre-eclampsia

Pre-eclampsia is the most common medical complication of pregnancy associated with increased maternal and infant mortality and morbidity. Its exact etiology is not known, although several evidences indicate that various elements might play an important role in pre-eclampsia. This study was carried out to analyze and to compare the concentration of calcium, magnesium, and zinc in the serum of women with pre-eclampsia and in normal pregnant women. Fifty clinically diagnosed patients with pre-eclampsia (25 with mild and 25 with severe pre-eclampsia) and 50 normal pregnant controls were enrolled in this study. The serum calcium, magnesium, and zinc levels were estimated with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The mean serum levels of calcium, magnesium, and zinc in normal pregnant group were 2.45 +/- 0.18 mmol/L, 0.79 +/- 0.13 mmol/L, and 15.64 +/- 2.4 micromol/L, respectively, while in mild pre-eclamptic group, these were 2.12 +/- 0.15 mmol/L, 0.67 +/- 0.14 mmol/L, and 12.72 +/- 1.7 micromol/L, respectively. Serum levels in severe pre-eclamptic group were 1.94 +/- 0.09 mmol/L, 0.62 +/- 0.11 mmol/L, and 12.04 +/- 1.4 micromol/L, respectively. These results indicate that reduction in serum levels of calcium, magnesium, and zinc during pregnancy might be possible contributors in etiology of pre-eclampsia, and supplementation of these elements to diet may be of value to prevent pre-eclampsia.

Dairy and bone health

Bone health is the resultant of bone mass, bone architecture, and body mechanics. Nutrition supports all three components, with the principal nutrients concerned being calcium, protein, and vitamin D. Potassium, magnesium, zinc, and several vitamins are also involved to varying extents. Given modern food sources, it is difficult to devise a diet that is "bone healthy" without including three servings of dairy per day, not just because of dairy calcium, but dairy protein and potassium as well.