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Eggerichs D, Weindorf N, Mascotti ML, Welzel N, Fraaije MW, Tischler D. Vanillyl alcohol oxidase from Diplodia corticola: Residues Ala420 and Glu466 allow for efficient catalysis of syringyl derivatives. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:104898. [PMID: 37295774 PMCID: PMC10404669 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.104898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Vanillyl alcohol oxidases (VAOs) belong to the 4-phenol oxidases family and are found predominantly in lignin-degrading ascomycetes. Systematical investigation of the enzyme family at the sequence level resulted in discovery and characterization of the second recombinantly produced VAO member, DcVAO, from Diplodia corticola. Remarkably high activities for 2,6-substituted substrates like 4-allyl-2,6-dimethoxy-phenol (3.5 ± 0.02 U mg-1) or 4-(hydroxymethyl)-2,6-dimethoxyphenol (6.3 ± 0.5 U mg-1) were observed, which could be attributed to a Phe to Ala exchange in the catalytic center. In order to rationalize this rare substrate preference among VAOs, we resurrected and characterized three ancestral enzymes and performed mutagenesis analyses. The results indicate that a Cys/Glu exchange was required to retain activity for ɣ-hydroxylations and shifted the acceptance towards benzyl ethers (up to 4.0 ± 0.1 U mg-1). Our findings contribute to the understanding of the functionality of VAO enzyme group, and with DcVAO, we add a new enzyme to the repertoire of ether cleaving biocatalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Eggerichs
- Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Nils Weindorf
- Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Maria Laura Mascotti
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands; Facultad de Química Bioquímica y Farmacia, IMIBIO-SL CONICET, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, San Luis, Argentina
| | - Natalie Welzel
- Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Marco W Fraaije
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Dirk Tischler
- Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.
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2
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Abstract
This review presents a historical outline of the research on vanillyl alcohol oxidase (VAO) from Penicillium simplicissimum, one of the canonical members of the VAO/PCMH flavoprotein family. After describing its discovery and initial biochemical characterization, we discuss the physiological role, substrate scope, and catalytic mechanism of VAO, and review its three-dimensional structure and mechanism of covalent flavinylation. We also explain how protein engineering provided a deeper insight into the role of certain amino acid residues in determining the substrate specificity and enantioselectivity of the enzyme. Finally, we summarize recent computational studies about the migration of substrates and products through the enzyme's structure and the phylogenetic distribution of VAO and related enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom A Ewing
- Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gudrun Gygli
- Institute for Biological Interfaces, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Marco W Fraaije
- Molecular Enzymology Group, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Willem J H van Berkel
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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3
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Gygli G, de Vries RP, van Berkel WJ. On the origin of vanillyl alcohol oxidases. Fungal Genet Biol 2018; 116:24-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2018.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Revised: 03/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Ewing TA, Gygli G, van Berkel WJH. A single loop is essential for the octamerization of vanillyl alcohol oxidase. FEBS J 2016; 283:2546-59. [PMID: 27214042 DOI: 10.1111/febs.13762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The VAO/PCMH family of flavoenzymes is a family of structurally related proteins that catalyse a wide range of oxidation reactions. It contains a subfamily of enzymes that catalyse the oxidation of para-substituted phenols using covalently bound FAD cofactors (the 4PO subfamily). This subfamily is composed of two oxidases, vanillyl alcohol oxidase (VAO) and eugenol oxidase (EUGO), and two flavocytochrome dehydrogenases, para-cresol methylhydroxylase (PCMH) and eugenol hydroxylase (EUGH). Although they catalyse similar reactions, these enzymes differ in terms of their electron acceptor preference and oligomerization state. For example, VAO forms homo-octamers that can be described as tetramers of stable dimers, whereas EUGO is exclusively dimeric in solution. A possible explanation for this difference is the presence of a loop at the dimer-dimer interface in VAO that is not present in EUGO. Here, the role played by this loop in determining the quaternary structure of these enzymes is investigated. A VAO variant where the loop was deleted, loopless VAO, exclusively formed dimers. However, introduction of the loop into EUGO was not sufficient to induce its octamerization. Neither variant displayed major changes in its catalytic properties as compared to the wild-type enzyme. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that the presence of the loop is conserved within putative fungal oxidases of the 4PO subgroup, but it is never found in putative bacterial oxidases or dehydrogenases. Our results shed light on the molecular mechanism of homo-oligomerization of VAO and the importance of oligomerization for its enzymatic function. ENZYMES p-cresol methylhydroxylase (4-methylphenol:acceptor oxidoreductase (methyl-hydroxylating), EC 1.17.99.1); vanillyl alcohol oxidase (vanillyl alcohol:oxygen oxidoreductase, EC 1.1.3.38).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom A Ewing
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
| | - Gudrun Gygli
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
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Sucharitakul J, Wongnate T, Chaiyen P. Kinetic Isotope Effects on the Noncovalent Flavin Mutant Protein of Pyranose 2-Oxidase Reveal Insights into the Flavin Reduction Mechanism. Biochemistry 2010; 49:3753-65. [DOI: 10.1021/bi100187b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeerus Sucharitakul
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Henri-Dunant Road, Patumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Thanyaporn Wongnate
- Department of Biochemistry and Center of Excellence in Protein Structure and Function, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- Department of Biochemistry and Center of Excellence in Protein Structure and Function, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
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Sakai Y, Yoshida H, Yurimoto H, Takabe K, Kato N. Subcellular localization of fructosyl amino acid oxidases in peroxisomes of Aspergillus terreus and Penicillium janthinellum. J Biosci Bioeng 2005; 87:108-11. [PMID: 16232435 DOI: 10.1016/s1389-1723(99)80018-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/1998] [Accepted: 09/25/1998] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Fructosyl amino acid oxidase (FAOD) is the enzyme catalyzing the oxidative deglycation of Amadori compounds, such as fructosyl amino acids, yielding the corresponding amino acids, glucosone, and H(2)O(2). In a previous report, we determined the primary structures of cDNAs coding for FAODs from two fungal strains Aspergillus terreus AP1 and Penicillium janthinellum and we found that both fungal FAODs included the putative peroxisome targeting signal 1 (PTS1) at the carboxyl terminal (Yoshida, N. et al., Eur. J. Biochem., 242, 499-505, 1996). In this study, we determined the intracellular localization of FAODs in these two fungi. Subcellular fractionation experiments and immuno-electronmicroscopic observations, together with the previous findings indicated that the FAODs were localized in peroxisomes of A. terreus AP1 and P. janthinellum. These FAODs were also found to belong to a new member of "peroxisomal sarcosine oxidase family protein" in eucaryotic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Sakai
- Division of Applied Life Sciences Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwake, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
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Daher BS, Venancio EJ, de Freitas SM, Báo SN, Vianney PVR, Andrade RV, Dantas AS, Soares CMA, Silva-Pereira I, Felipe MSS. The highly expressed yeast gene pby20 from Paracoccidioides brasiliensis encodes a flavodoxin-like protein. Fungal Genet Biol 2005; 42:434-43. [PMID: 15809007 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2005.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2004] [Revised: 01/13/2005] [Accepted: 01/14/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A gene encoding the entire highly expressed protein previously identified in the proteome of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis yeast cells as PbY20 has been isolated. The pby20 sequence reveals an open reading frame of 1364bp and a deduced amino acid sequence of 203 residues, which shows high identity to benzoquinone reductase from Phanerochaete chrysosporium (72.0%), Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ycp4 (65%), and Schizosaccharomyces pombe p25 (59%), and to allergens from Alternaria alternata Alt a7 (70%) and from Cladosporium herbarum, Cla h5 (68%). Low levels of the pby20 transcript in the mycelium and highly induced ones in infective yeast cells during the transition of this dimorphic fungus indicate transcriptional control of its expression. PbY20 was immunologically detected only in yeast cell extract, suggesting an important role in cell differentiation or even in the maintenance of the yeast form. Immunoelectron microscopy showed that PbY20 is found inside large granules and vacuoles, in the nucleus, and also in the cytoplasm. Through sequence comparisons analysis and fluorescence emission assay, PbY20 was recognized as a member of the flavin mononucleotide flavodoxin-like WrbA family, which are involved in heat shock and oxidative stress in biological systems. Assuming that PbY20 belongs to this family, a similar role could be attributed to this protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno S Daher
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
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Scherer M, Wei H, Liese R, Fischer R. Aspergillus nidulans catalase-peroxidase gene (cpeA) is transcriptionally induced during sexual development through the transcription factor StuA. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2002; 1:725-35. [PMID: 12455692 PMCID: PMC126739 DOI: 10.1128/ec.1.5.725-735.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Catalases, peroxidases, and catalase-peroxidases are important enzymes to cope with reactive oxygen species in pro- and eukaryotic cells. In the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans three monofunctional catalases have been described, and a fourth catalase activity was observed in native polyacrylamide gels. The latter activity is probably due to the bifunctional enzyme catalase-peroxidase, which we characterized here. The gene, named cpeA, encodes an 81-kDa polypeptide with a conserved motif for heme coordination. The enzyme comprises of two similar domains, suggesting gene duplication and fusion during evolution. The first 439 amino acids share 22% identical residues with the C terminus. Homologous proteins are found in several prokaryotes, such as Escherichia coli and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (both with 61% identity). In fungi the enzyme has been noted in Penicillium simplicissimum, Septoria tritici, and Neurospora crassa (69% identical amino acids) but is absent from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Expression analysis in A. nidulans revealed that the gene is transcriptionally induced upon carbon starvation and during sexual development, but starvation is not sufficient to reach high levels of the transcript during development. Besides transcriptional activation, we present evidence for posttranscriptional regulation. A green fluorescent protein fusion protein localized to the cytoplasm of Hülle cells. The Hülle cell-specific expression was dependent on the developmental regulator StuA, suggesting an activating function of this helix-loop-helix transcription factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Scherer
- Laboratorium für Mikrobiologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg and Max-Planck-Institut für Terrestrische Mikrobiologie, D-35043 Marburg, Germany
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Tuthill DE, Frisvad JC, Christensen M. Systematics of Penicillium simplicissimum based on rDNA sequences, morphology and secondary metabolites. Mycologia 2001. [DOI: 10.1080/00275514.2001.12063161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jens C. Frisvad
- Department of Biotechnology, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark
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Grewal N, Parveen Z, Large A, Perry C, Connock M. Gastropod mollusc aliphatic alcohol oxidase: subcellular localisation and properties. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2000; 125:543-54. [PMID: 10904867 DOI: 10.1016/s0305-0491(00)00164-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
The digestive gland and other tissues of several species of terrestrial gastropod mollusc contain an aliphatic alcohol oxidase activity (EC1.1.3.13). The enzyme is FAD dependent, consumes oxygen and generates hydrogen peroxide and the corresponding aldehyde. Saturated primary alcohols are favoured as substrates with octanol preferred with an apparent Km of 3-4 microM. The activity is clearly distinguishable from previously reported molluscan aromatic alcohol oxidase (EC1.1.3.7) on the basis of FAD dependence, sensitivity to heat treatment and high salt concentration and with regard to substrate preferences. The aliphatic alcohol oxidase is membrane associated and most likely localised to the endoplasmic reticulum. Extraction of membranes with 1% Igipal solubilises the enzyme in active form. This enzyme is a further example of an oxidase apparently restricted to molluscs.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Grewal
- School of Applied Sciences, University of Wolverhampton, UK
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Fraaije MW, van den Heuvel RH, van Berkel WJ, Mattevi A. Covalent flavinylation is essential for efficient redox catalysis in vanillyl-alcohol oxidase. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:35514-20. [PMID: 10585424 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.50.35514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
By mutating the target residue of covalent flavinylation in vanillyl-alcohol oxidase, the functional role of the histidyl-FAD bond was studied. Three His(422) mutants (H422A, H422T, and H422C) were purified, which all contained tightly but noncovalently bound FAD. Steady state kinetics revealed that the mutants have retained enzyme activity, although the turnover rates have decreased by 1 order of magnitude. Stopped-flow analysis showed that the H422A mutant is still able to form a stable binary complex of reduced enzyme and a quinone methide product intermediate, a crucial step during vanillyl-alcohol oxidase-mediated catalysis. The only significant change in the catalytic cycle of the H422A mutant is a marked decrease in reduction rate. Redox potentials of both wild type and H422A vanillyl-alcohol oxidase have been determined. During reduction of H422A, a large portion of the neutral flavin semiquinone is observed. Using suitable reference dyes, the redox potentials for the two one-electron couples have been determined: -17 and -113 mV. Reduction of wild type enzyme did not result in any formation of flavin semiquinone and revealed a remarkably high redox potential of +55 mV. The marked decrease in redox potential caused by the missing covalent histidyl-FAD bond is reflected in the reduced rate of substrate-mediated flavin reduction limiting the turnover rate. Elucidation of the crystal structure of the H422A mutant established that deletion of the histidyl-FAD bond did not result in any significant structural changes. These results clearly indicate that covalent interaction of the isoalloxazine ring with the protein moiety can markedly increase the redox potential of the flavin cofactor, thereby facilitating redox catalysis. Thus, formation of a histidyl-FAD bond in specific flavoenzymes might have evolved as a way to contribute to the enhancement of their oxidative power.
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Affiliation(s)
- M W Fraaije
- Department of Genetics, University of Pavia, via Abbiategrasso 207, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
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