Adrenic acid content in rat adrenal mitochondrial phosphatidylethanolamine and its relation to ACTH-mediated stimulation of cholesterol side chain cleavage reaction

Adrenic acid: A promising biomarker and therapeutic target (Review)

Adrenic acid is a 22‑carbon unsaturated fatty acid that is widely present in the adrenal gland, liver, brain, kidney and vascular system that plays a regulatory role in various pathophysiological processes, such as inflammatory reactions, lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, vascular function, and cell death. Adrenic acid is a potential biomarker for various ailments, including metabolic, neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases and cancer. In addition, adrenic acid is influenced by the pharmacological properties of several natural products, such as astragaloside IV, evodiamine, quercetin, kaempferol, Berberine‑baicalin and prebiotics, so it is a promising new target for clinical treatment and drug development. However, the molecular mechanisms by which adrenic acid exerts are unclear. The present study systematically reviewed the biosynthesis and metabolism of adrenic acid, focusing on intrinsic mechanisms that influence the progression of metabolic, cardiovascular and neurological disease. These mechanisms regulate several key processes, including immuno‑inflammatory response, oxidative stress, vascular function and cell death. In addition, the present study explored the potential clinical translational value of adrenic acid as a biomarker and therapeutic target. To the best of our knowledge, the present study is first systematic summary of the mechanisms of action of adrenic acid across a range of diseases. The present study provides understanding of the wide range of metabolic activities of adrenic acid and a basis for further exploring the pathogenesis and therapeutic targets of various diseases.

Functional metabolite reserves and lipid homeostasis revealed by the MA-10 Leydig cell metabolome

In Leydig cells, intrinsic factors that determine cellular steroidogenic efficiency is of functional interest to decipher and monitor pathophysiology in many contexts. Nevertheless, beyond basic regulation of cholesterol storage and mobilization, systems biology interpretation of the metabolite networks in steroidogenic function is deficient. To reconstruct and describe the different molecular systems regulating steroidogenesis, we profiled the metabolites in resting MA-10 Leydig cells. Our results identified 283-annotated components (82 neutral lipids, 154 membrane lipids, and 47 other metabolites). Neutral lipids were represented by an abundance of triacyglycerols (97.1%), and low levels of cholesterol esters (2.0%). Membrane lipids were represented by an abundance of glycerophospholipids (77.8%), followed by sphingolipids (22.2%). Acylcarnitines, nucleosides, amino acids and their derivatives were the other metabolite classes identified. Among nonlipid metabolites, we recognized substantial reserves of aspartic acid, choline, creatine, betaine, glutamine, homoserine, isoleucine, and pantothenic acid none of which have been previously considered as a requirement in steroidogenic function. Individually limiting use of betaine, choline, or pantothenic acid, during luteinizing hormone-induced steroidogenesis in MA-10 cells resulted in substantial decreases to acute steroidogenic capacity, explained by intermediary metabolite imbalances affecting homeostasis. As such, our dataset represents the current level of baseline characterization and unravels the functional resting state of steroidogenic MA-10 Leydig cells. In identifying metabolite stockpiles and causal mechanisms, these results serve to further comprehend the cellular setup and regulation of steroid biosynthesis.

Active steroid hormone synthesis renders adrenocortical cells highly susceptible to type II ferroptosis induction

Conditions of impaired adrenal function and tissue destruction, such as in Addison's disease, and treatment resistance of adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) necessitate improved understanding of the pathophysiology of adrenal cell death. Due to relevant oxidative processes in the adrenal cortex, our study investigated the role of ferroptosis, an iron-dependent cell death mechanism and found high adrenocortical expression of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and long-chain-fatty-acid CoA ligase 4 (ACSL4) genes, key factors in the initiation of ferroptosis. By applying MALDI mass spectrometry imaging to normal and neoplastic adrenocortical tissue, we detected high abundance of arachidonic and adrenic acid, two long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids which undergo peroxidation during ferroptosis. In three available adrenal cortex cell models (H295R, CU-ACC1 and CU-ACC-2) a high susceptibility to GPX4 inhibition with RSL3 was documented with EC50 values of 5.7 × 10-8, 8.1 × 10-7 and 2.1 × 10-8 M, respectively, while all non-steroidogenic cells were significantly less sensitive. Complete block of GPX4 activity by RSL3 led to ferroptosis which was completely reversed in adrenal cortex cells by inhibition of steroidogenesis with ketoconazole but not by blocking the final step of cortisol synthesis with metyrapone. Mitotane, the only approved drug for ACC did not induce ferroptosis, despite strong induction of lipid peroxidation in ACC cells. Together, this report is the first to demonstrate extraordinary sensitivity of adrenal cortex cells to ferroptosis dependent on their active steroid synthetic pathways. Mitotane does not induce this form of cell death in ACC cells.

Binding domain-driven intracellular trafficking of sterols for synthesis of steroid hormones, bile acids and oxysterols

Steroid hormones, bioactive oxysterols and bile acids are all derived from the biological metabolism of lipid cholesterol. The enzymatic pathways generating these compounds have been an area of intense research for almost a century, as cholesterol and its metabolites have substantial impacts on human health. Owing to its high degree of hydrophobicity and the chemical properties that it confers to biological membranes, the distribution of cholesterol in cells is tightly controlled, with subcellular organelles exhibiting highly divergent levels of cholesterol. The manners in which cells maintain such sterol distributions are of great interest in the study of steroid and bile acid synthesis, as limiting cholesterol substrate to the enzymatic pathways is the principal mechanism by which production of steroids and bile acids is regulated. The mechanisms by which cholesterol moves within cells, however, remain poorly understood. In this review, we examine the subcellular machinery involved in cholesterol metabolism to steroid hormones and bile acid, relating it to both lipid- and protein-based mechanisms facilitating intracellular and intraorganellar cholesterol movement and delivery to these pathways. In particular, we examine evidence for the involvement of specific protein domains involved in cholesterol binding, which impact cholesterol movement and metabolism in steroidogenesis and bile acid synthesis. A better understanding of the physical mechanisms by which these protein- and lipid-based systems function is of fundamental importance to understanding physiological homeostasis and its perturbation.

Phospholipid sources for adrenic acid mobilization in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Comparison with arachidonic acid

Cells metabolize arachidonic acid (AA) to adrenic acid (AdA) via 2-carbon elongation reactions. Like AA, AdA can be converted into multiple oxygenated metabolites, with important roles in various physiological and pathophysiological processes. However, in contrast to AA, there is virtually no information on how the cells regulate the availability of free AdA for conversion into bioactive products. We have used a comparative lipidomic approach with both gas chromatography and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry to characterize changes in the levels of AA- and AdA-containing phospholipid species in RAW 264.7 macrophage-like cells. Incubation of the cells with AA results in an extensive conversion to AdA but both fatty acids do not compete with each other for esterification into phospholipids. AdA but not AA, shows preference for incorporation into phospholipids containing stearic acid at the sn-1 position. After stimulation of the cells with zymosan, both AA and AdA are released in large quantities, albeit AA is released to a greater extent. Finally, a variety of phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylinositol molecular species contribute to AA; however, AdA is liberated exclusively from phosphatidylcholine species. Collectively, these results identify significant differences in the cellular utilization of AA and AdA by the macrophages, suggesting non-redundant biological actions for these two fatty acids.

Cytochrome c acts as a cardiolipin oxygenase required for release of proapoptotic factors

Programmed death (apoptosis) is turned on in damaged or unwanted cells to secure their clean and safe self-elimination. The initial apoptotic events are coordinated in mitochondria, whereby several proapoptotic factors, including cytochrome c, are released into the cytosol to trigger caspase cascades. The release mechanisms include interactions of B-cell/lymphoma 2 family proteins with a mitochondria-specific phospholipid, cardiolipin, to cause permeabilization of the outer mitochondrial membrane. Using oxidative lipidomics, we showed that cardiolipin is the only phospholipid in mitochondria that undergoes early oxidation during apoptosis. The oxidation is catalyzed by a cardiolipin-specific peroxidase activity of cardiolipin-bound cytochrome c. In a previously undescribed step in apoptosis, we showed that oxidized cardiolipin is required for the release of proapoptotic factors. These results provide insight into the role of reactive oxygen species in triggering the cell-death pathway and describe an early role for cytochrome c before caspase activation.

Effects of prolonged ACTH-stimulation on adrenocortical cholesterol reserve and apolipoprotein E concentration in young and aged Fischer 344 male rats

Changes in the morphology of rat adrenal cortex with age include increased accumulations of lipid droplets and lipofuscin granules. Because glandular concentrations of cholesteryl esters (CE) and apolipoprotein (apo) E are also increased in parallel, the utilization or metabolism of lipid-droplet stored CE for steroidogenesis might be altered in aging cells. To explore this possibility, adrenocortical cholesterol storage and utilization were studied in 3-6 months-old (mo) (Y) rats and 20-23 mo (O) Fischer 344 male rats. Both groups received either adrenocorticotropin (ACTH1-39, Acthar gel) or gelatin alone daily for seven consecutive days. We found that: (a) the CE concentration in O rats, but not Y animals, was diminished by ACTH. The depleted CE in stimulated-O rats was replenished within five days post stimulation. Failure to deplete CE in stimulated-Y rats was not associated with an insufficient dose of the hormone, since stimulation of Y animals with higher doses of ACTH actually increased the CE concentration. In contrast, adrenocortical free cholesterol concentration remained constant during stimulation regardless of age. (b) The depleted CE in stimulated-O rats was principally comprised of cholesteryl adrenate, cholesteryl arachidonate and cholesteryl cervonate. The accumulated CE in stimulated-Y animals was primarily comprised of cholesteryl adrenate, cholesteryl arachidonate and cholesteryl oleate. (c) Whereas in stimulated-Y rats adrenal apoE concentration declined, the concentration in stimulated O animals was well maintained. (d) In vitro, adrenal homogenate or cytosolic fraction from stimulated-O rats displayed a higher capacity to hydrolyze exogenous CE than its Y counterpart. However, cholesterol esterification with external fatty acid substrates in adrenal homogenate or microsomal fraction was comparable in the two age-groups. Our findings revealed altered adrenocortical cholesterol reserve in O rats to cope with prolonged ACTH-stimulation. Changes in apoE levels and CE hydrolysis activity may be factors associated with this alteration. Depletion and accumulation of adrenocortical CE are reflected in parallel changes in cholesteryl adrenate and cholesteryl arachidonate, suggesting physiologic importance of these polyunsaturated fatty acids during sustained steroidogenesis.

Regulation of cholesterol movement to mitochondrial cytochrome P450scc in steroid hormone synthesis

Transfer of cholesterol to cytochrome P450scc is generally the rate-limiting step in steroid synthesis. Depending on the steroidogenic cell, cholesterol is supplied from low or high density lipoproteins (LDL or HDL) or de novo synthesis. ACTH and gonadotropins stimulate this cholesterol transfer prior to activation of gene transcription, both through increasing the availability of cytosolic free cholesterol and through enhanced cholesterol transfer between the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes. Cytosolic free cholesterol from LDL or HDL is primarily increased through enhanced cholesterol ester hydrolysis and suppressed esterification, but increased de novo synthesis can be significant. Elements of the cytoskeleton, probably in conjunction with sterol carrier protein(2) (SCP(2)), mediate cholesterol transfer to the mitochondrial outer membranes. Several factors contribute to the transfer of cholesterol between mitochondrial membranes; steroidogenesis activator peptide acts synergistically with GTP and is supplemented by SCP(2). 5-Hydroperoxyeicosatrienoic acid, endozepine (at peripheral benzodiazepine receptors), and rapid changes in outer membrane phospholipid content may also contribute stimulatory effects at this step. It is suggested that hormonal activation, through these factors, alters membrane structure around mitochondrial intermembrane contact sites, which also function to transfer ADP, phospholipids, and proteins to the inner mitochondria. Cholesterol transfer may occur following a labile fusion of inner and outer membranes, stimulated through involvement of cardiolipin and phosphatidylethanolamine in hexagonal phase membrane domains. Ligand binding to benzodiazepine receptors and the mitochondrial uptake of 37 kDa phosphoproteins that uniquely characterize steroidogenic mitochondria could possibly facilitate these changes. ACTH activation of rat adrenals increases the susceptibility of mitochondrial outer membranes to digitonin solubilization, suggesting increased cholesterol availability. Proteins associated with contact sites were not solubilized, indicating that this part of the outer membrane is resistant to this treatment. Two pools of reactive cholesterol within adrenal mitochondria have been distinguished by different isocitrate- and succinate-supported metabolism. These pools appear to be differentially affected in vitro by the above stimulatory factors.

Abnormal metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids in adrenal glands of diabetic rats

Studies carried out on the adrenal glands of experimental diabetic rats have shown an important inhibition in polyenoic fatty acid biosynthesis. This effect was demonstrated by testing the activities of long-chain fatty acyl-CoA synthetase, the delta 5- and delta 6-desaturases of the (n-6) essential fatty-acid series and the delta 6-desaturase of the (n-3) series in liver and adrenal microsomes. The depression in desaturating activity in the insulin-deprived animals was independent of that produced on acyl-CoA-thioester biosynthesis. Experiments measuring the incorporation and transformation of [1-14C]eicosa-8,11,14-trienoic acid in adrenocortical cells isolated from streptozotocin-diabetic animals demonstrated a significant inhibition of arachidonic acid biosynthesis compared to controls. Insulin injections in diabetic rats partially restored the delta 5- and delta 6-desaturase activities. This effect could result from direct action by the hormone since the restoration was reproduced when arachidonic acid biosynthesis was measured after insulin was added to the incubation medium of adrenocortical cells isolated from diabetic animals. The results of the present study provide new information about the implication of this abnormal metabolism in the adrenal gland of diabetic rats.

Heterogeneous pools of cholesterol side-chain cleavage activity in adrenal mitochondria from ACTH-treated rats: differential responses to different reducing precursors

Side-chain cleavage (SCC) of endogenous cholesterol in adrenal mitochondria isolated from ACTH-treated rats indicates that the size of the reactive cholesterol pool depends on the reducing precursor. At optimal concentrations of reductant, this pool was typically at least 2 times greater for isocitrate than for succinate. Succinate-supported reactions were rapidly completed, were highly sensitive to a 2-min preincubation, and failed to deplete spectrally detected P-450SCC-cholesterol complexes. Cholesterol SCC with 1 mM isocitrate exhibited 2-3 times more fast-phase metabolism, a pronounced slow phase, insensitivity to preincubation, and 60% depletion of spectrally detected cholesterol-P-450SCC complexes. Addition of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and EDTA, either during homogenization or directly to the incubation, prevented preincubation losses in response to succinate and removed most of the difference between succinate and isocitrate activities. This effect of BSA/EDTA was reversed within 5 min by octanoate by a mechanism that was enhanced by Ca2+. These distinct reductant characteristics suggest that only a subpopulation of mitochondria or of pools of activity within individual mitochondria can support cholesterol SCC with succinate while isocitrate is necessary for the remainder. The rapid responses of succinate-supported metabolism to preincubation or to octanoate suggest depletion of a critical factor for cholesterol metabolism. Metabolism of added 20 alpha-hydroxycholesterol or deoxycorticosterone established that NADPH remained fully available after succinate-supported cholesterol metabolism had stopped or after preincubation. Cessation of pregnenolone formation, therefore, results from a failure to supply cholesterol, not inadequate NADPH. The preincubation effect suggests loss of an energy-dependent component that enhances this supply of cholesterol. One possibility tested was that GTP, an activator of intermembrane cholesterol transfer (Xu et al. (1989) J. Biol. Chem. 264, 17674-17680), was being lost. Added GTP slightly activated succinate-supported pregnenolone production but did not prevent preincubation-induced losses. alpha-Ketoglutarate, which can generate matrix GTP, is an effective reductant that, in combination with succinate, prevents preincubation-induced losses.

A role of lyso-phosphatidylcholine in GM3-dependent inhibition of epidermal growth factor receptor autophosphorylation in A431 plasma membranes

EGF-dependent receptor autophosphorylation (EDRA) in A431 plasma membrane was specifically stimulated by lysophospholipids having phosphorylcholine head group (e.g., lyso-phosphatidylcholine; lyso-PC) but not other lysophospholipids, in the absence of detergent. In contrast, GM3 specifically inhibited EDRA under the same experimental conditions in which lyso-PC stimulated EDRA. This GM3-dependent inhibition was more efficient in the absence (vs. presence) of a detergent (Triton X-100). These results indicate an essential role of lyso-PC in GM3-regulated EGF receptor functions.

Biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids of (n-6) and (n-3) series in isolated adrenocortical cells of rats. Effect of ACTH

Both the capacity of isolated adrenocortical cells to incorporate and transform [1-14C]linoleic and [1-14C]alpha-linolenic acids and the effect of ACTH on the biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids from [1-14C]alpha-linolenic acid were investigated. The cells were able to incorporate both labeled precursor acids and convert them into higher homologs. This transformation increases along the incubation time tested. When linoleic acid was the precursor, the biosynthesis of higher homologs was carried out following the desaturating-elongating route. Both pathways, the desaturating-elongating and the elongating, were detected when the substrate was alpha-linolenic acid. The results proved the existence of delta 6, delta 5 and delta 4-desaturases in this type of cells. Isolated adrenocortical cells obtained from rats treated with ACTH showed an increase in the amount of [1-14C]alpha-18:3 that remained in the cells without metabolization and, consequently, a decrease in the last product formed (20:5 n-3) was evident compared to the controls. Simultaneously, the desaturation-elongation products decreased significantly. Similar results were obtained when cells isolated from untreated rats were incubated for 3 h in the presence of ACTH. In this case, the values obtained returned to normal levels 6 h after incubation. These results were mimicked by dibutyryl-cyclic AMP. It can be concluded that the effect of ACTH on the biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids from alpha-linolenic acid was mediated through an enhancement of the intracellular levels of cAMP.

Synergistic stimulation of pregnenolone synthesis in rat adrenal mitochondria by n-hexane and cardiolipin

n-Hexane and cardiolipin each stimulate pregnenolone production by isolated rat adrenal mitochondria. Following corticotropin (ACTH) stimulation, mitochondrial cholesterol metabolism exhibits a fast phase lasting 2 min, followed by a 10-fold slower metabolism. ACTH suppression by dexamethazone or cycloheximide (CX) treatment removes this fast phase. n-Hexane, at concentrations approaching 80% of the aqueous solubility limit (approximately 0.08 mM), selectively stimulates the slow phase of metabolism, while cardiolipin (100 microM) stimulates only the fast phase. Other alkanes and ethers are effective. The effect of n-hexane is dependent on mitochondrial integrity, as evidenced by decreased effects in hypoosmotically shocked mitochondria (outer membrane disrupted) and ineffectiveness in sonicated mitochondria (both membranes disrupted). n-Hexane apparently enhances the transfer of outer membrane cholesterol to inner membrane P-450scc. Stimulation by cardiolipin is retained by disrupted mitochondria and may involve enhanced availability of P-450scc to inner membrane cholesterol. When added together, these agents produce more than additive effects on cholesterol metabolism. Preincubation with n-hexane did not increase reactive cholesterol, suggesting that enhanced cholesterol transport occurs only in concert with metabolism of inner membrane cholesterol. Uptake of alkanes into mitochondrial membranes may effect structural changes that facilitate outer to inner membrane cholesterol transfer, but major changes are excluded by the effectiveness of isocitrate as a reductant for P-450scc. In combination, n-hexane and cardiolipin reproduce the effect of the ACTH-sensitive sterol regulatory peptide on mitochondria [R. C. Pedersen and A. C. Brownie (1983) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80, 1882-1886], suggesting that peptide action on adrenal mitochondria may resolve into two analogous components.

Clustering in coated vesicles of polyunsaturated phospholipids segregated from plasma and Golgi membranes of adrenocortical cells

In bovine adrenocortical cells, the fatty acyl chains of the phospholipids have been identified in the membranes of the different cell compartments: plasma membranes, Golgi complex and coated vesicle membranes. An increase in the total number of unsaturation in the fatty acid is demonstrated in the coated vesicle membranes as compared with the plasma and Golgi membranes. Furthermore, it appears that phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine are both enriched in polyunsaturated fatty acyl chains, namely arachidonic and adrenic acids in both types of coated vesicles. Only two of the fatty acids are characteristic of Golgi complex and small coated vesicles, 22:5 (n-6) in PC and 22:6 (n-3) in PE, suggesting that the SCV could originate from the Golgi stacks. A high value of the ratio 22:5 (n-3)/22:6 (n-3) is observed which is, as far as we know, characteristic of adrenal cells.

Steroidogenesis-activator polypeptide isolated from a rat Leydig cell tumor

A cycloheximide-sensitive protein responsive to adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate has been postulated to participate in the regulation of cholesterol side-chain cleavage activity in steroidogenic tissues. Such a steroidogenesis activator polypeptide (SAP) had been isolated from rat adrenocortical tissue and partially characterized. Now a polypeptide with comparable chromatographic behavior and biological activity has been purified from the rat H-540 Leydig cell tumor in quantities sufficient for amino acid sequencing. The activator contains 30 amino acid residues and has a molecular weight of 3215. The synthetic construct based on this sequence is virtually equipotent with native H-540 tumor SAP in an adrenal mitochondrial cholesterol side-chain cleavage assay. Hormonal regulation of the intracellular concentration of this activator may control the rate of cholesterol metabolism in steroidogenic organs.