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Yin Y, Gong D, Tang Y, Wang Z. Ephedrine causes retinal damage in SD rats associating with JAK2/STAT3 pathway. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2020; 39:254-259. [PMID: 32602374 DOI: 10.1080/15569527.2020.1787433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Ephedrine has various side effects in the cardiovascular and nervous systems. However, the cellular mechanism of toxicity remains unknown, specifically on the retina. This study was to investigate effects of ephedrine on the retina and explore the underlying mechanisms. METHODS Sprague Dawley rats were treated with ephedrine (n = 10) or saline (n = 10) by oral gavage for seven days. The retinal morphology was evaluated by Toluidine blue staining. Apoptosis-related markers were detected in the retinal lysate. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to measure neurotransmitters and oxidative stress markers. Real-time PCR and western blot were used to measure gene and protein expression, respectively. RESULTS Our results demonstrated that ephedrine induced apoptosis in the retina, increased dopamine level as well as oxidative stress, and down-regulated the Jak2/Stat3 gene expression as well as protein expression of p-JAK2/p-STAT3. CONCLUSIONS Our study indicated that ephedrine treatment caused retinal damage in SD rats, which may be associated with the JAK2/STAT3 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Yin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Beijing China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Di Gong
- Department of Ophthalmology, Beijing China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Tang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Beijing China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhijun Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Beijing China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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Duan S, Ma Y, Xie L, Zheng L, Huang J, Guo R, Sun Z, Xie Y, Lv J, Lin Z, Ma S. Effects of Chronic Ephedrine Toxicity on Functional Connections, Cell Apoptosis, and CREB-Related Proteins in the Prefrontal Cortex of Rhesus Monkeys. Neurotox Res 2020; 37:602-615. [PMID: 31858422 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-019-00146-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Ephedrine abuse has spread in many parts of the world, severely threatening human health. The mechanism of ephedrine toxicity is still unclear. To explore the possible neural mechanisms of ephedrine toxicity, this study established a non-human primate model of ephedrine exposure, analyzed the functional connectivity changes in its prefrontal cortex through resting state BOLD-fMRI, and then inspected the pathophysiological changes as well as the expression of the cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element-binding protein (CREB), phosphorylated CREB (P-CREB), and CREB target proteins (c-fos and fosB) in the prefrontal cortex. After ephedrine toxicity, we found that the prefrontal cortex of monkeys strengthened its functional connectivity with the brain regions that perform motivation, drive, reward, and learning and memory functions and weakened its functional connectivity with the brain regions that perform cognitive control. These results suggest that ephedrine toxicity causes abnormal neural circuits that lead to the amplification and enhancement of drug-related cues and the weakening and damage of cognitive control function. Histology showed that the neurocytotoxicity of ephedrine can cause neuronal degeneration and apoptosis. Real-time PCR and Western blot showed increased expression of CREB mRNA and CREB/P-CREB/c-fos/fosB protein in the prefrontal cortex after ephedrine toxicity. Collectively, the present study indicates that the enhancement of drug-related cues and the weakening of cognitive control caused by abnormal neural circuits after drug exposure may be a major mechanism of brain function changes caused by ephedrine. These histological and molecular changes may be the pathophysiological basis of brain function changes caused by ephedrine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shouxing Duan
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
| | - Ye Ma
- Department of Linguistics & Languages, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Lei Xie
- Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
| | - Lian Zheng
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinzhuang Huang
- Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
| | - Ruiwei Guo
- Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
| | - Zongbo Sun
- Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
| | - Yao Xie
- Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
| | - Junyao Lv
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhirong Lin
- Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuhua Ma
- Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China.
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China.
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, People's Republic of China.
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Xie L, Ma Y, Huang J, Guo R, Wang J, Sun Z, Duan S, Wu B, Lin Z, Xiao Y, Ma S. Exploring the neuromechanism of chronic ephedrine addiction in rhesus monkeys: A behavioural and brain resting-state fMRI study. Behav Brain Res 2019; 359:807-813. [PMID: 30059694 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Ephedrine is thought to exert behavioural effects primarily through actions on the central nervous system. However, the neuromechanism underlying the effects of ephedrine addiction still remains unclear. Our study aimed to establish chronic ephedrine addiction models in rhesus monkeys and to investigate the neuromechanism of chronic ephedrine addiction using the behavioural methods combined with resting-state blood oxygenation level dependent-functional magnetic resonance imaging (BOLD-fMRI). Monkeys in the ephedrine addiction group (n = 6) received intramuscular injections of ephedrine using a dose escalation method, with a chronic model established in 8 weeks, while in the control group (n = 4), monkeys received a pure 0.9% saline injection. The weight and behaviors of the monkeys were observed throughout the treatment. All monkeys underwent the brain MR scans for two times (before treatment and after treatment had been discontinued). After molding, the weight of the ephedrine group was significantly reduced, while the weight of the control group increased significantly. Compared with the control group, the ephedrine addicted monkeys showed more abnormal behaviors related to addiction. In fMRI study, the ephedrine addicted monkeys showed more increased brain activation than that of the control group, mainly including the prefrontal cortex(PFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), the left ventral tegmental area(VTA), right insula, right amygdala, hippocampus, left thalamus, and left cerebellum.We hypothesize that the principal neuromechanism underlying chronic ephedrine addiction involves multiple abnormal brain neuron circuits, mainly in the PFC and the limbic system, and is closely related to addictive behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Xie
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China
| | - Ye Ma
- Department of Linguistics & Languages, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Jinzhuang Huang
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China
| | - Ruiwei Guo
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China
| | - Jinhong Wang
- Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Department of Ultrasound, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China
| | - Zongbo Sun
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China
| | - Shouxing Duan
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 69 Dongxiabei Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China
| | - Beibei Wu
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China
| | - Zhirong Lin
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China
| | - Yifeng Xiao
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China
| | - Shuhua Ma
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Shantou University Medical College, No. 22 Xinling Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China; Guangdong Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging, No. 57 Changping Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China.
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Glennon RA. The 2014 Philip S. Portoghese Medicinal Chemistry Lectureship: The "Phenylalkylaminome" with a Focus on Selected Drugs of Abuse. J Med Chem 2017; 60:2605-2628. [PMID: 28244748 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b00085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The phenylalkylamine, particularly the phenylethylamine, moiety is a common structural feature found embedded in many clinically approved agents. Greater still is its occurrence in drugs of abuse. The simplest phenylethylamine, 2-phenylethylamine itself, is without significant central action when administered at moderate doses, but fairly simple structural modifications profoundly impact its pharmacology and result in large numbers of useful pharmacological tools, agents with therapeutic potential, and in drugs of abuse (e.g., hallucinogens, central stimulants, empathogens), the latter of which are the primary focus here. In vivo drug discrimination techniques and in vitro receptor/transporter methods have been applied to understand the actions of these phenylalkylamines and their mechanisms of action. Thus far, depending upon pendent substituents, certain receptors (e.g., serotonin receptors) and monoamine transporters (i.e., serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine transporters) have been implicated as playing major roles in the actions of these abused agents in a complex and, at times, interwoven manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Glennon
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
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Current FDA regulatory guidance on the conduct of drug discrimination studies for NDA review: Does the scientific literature support recent recommendations? Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 168:307-319. [PMID: 27629024 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Revised: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Controlled Substances Staff of the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research at the US Food and Drug Administration and the Pharmaceutical Research Manufacturers Association (PhRMA) conducted a series of open forum dialog sessions between 2006 and 2016. A Cross Company Abuse Liability Council (CCALC) was formed during the process of this unique collaborative effort between Industry and Federal Regulators whose goals were to establish the development of standards for the preclinical screening of new molecular entities for schedule control actions required as part of every New Drug Application process. The draft guidance document was published and disseminated in 2010, which allowed for alternative approaches to each study protocol requirement needed for NDA review, if the approach satisfied the requirements of the applicable statutes and regulations (i.e., the controlled substance act). In a series of recent pre-study protocol reviews requested by confidential Pharmaceutical Sponsors of MPI Research, the CSS staff appeared to change its policy and set forth to require all drug discrimination study data to be generated under "extinction" test sessions. MPI Research is a Contract Research Organization acting on behalf of pharmaceutical companies and bound under separate confidentiality agreements. PURPOSE The purpose of this review is to highlight the data appearing in peer-reviewed scientific journals that do not support the regulatory administrative constraints on one specific testing methodology (extinction) to the exclusion of another (reinforced test sessions). CONCLUSION This mind shift represents a restrictive administrative policy by the FDA that is not supported by the published data.
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Kim EH, Shin MS, Chang HK, Lee TH, Jang MH, Shin MC, Lee SJ, Kim CJ. Aqueous extract of ma huang suppresses neuropeptide Y expression in food-deprived rat hypothalamus. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2005; 32:659-67. [PMID: 15633802 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x04002326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Ma huang, the dried plant stem of ephedra intermedia Schrenk et C.A., contains an ephedrine-type alkaloid and has been used for weight loss. Neuropeptide Y (NPY), a 36-amino acid peptide, is concentrated in the hypothalamus and stimulates feeding desire. In this study, the effect of ma huang on the expressions of NPY in the hypothalamus of rats was investigated using immunohistochemistry. Food-deprivation enhanced the NPY expression in the hypothalamus. ma huang suppressed the food-deprivation-induced enhancement of NPY expression. Present results suggest that ma huang curbs the food desire by suppressing the NPY expression under food-deprivation conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ee-Hwa Kim
- Department of Meridian and Acupoint, College of Oriental Medicine Semyung University, Jechon, Korea
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McMahon LR, Cunningham KA. Discriminative stimulus effects of (-)-ephedrine in rats: analysis with catecholamine transporter and receptor ligands. Drug Alcohol Depend 2003; 70:255-64. [PMID: 12757963 DOI: 10.1016/s0376-8716(03)00011-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A drug discrimination procedure was used to examine the neuropharmacology of (-)-ephedrine (5 mg/kg), a sympathomimetic amine found in a variety of dietary supplements. (-)-Ephedrine has caused concern because of its use as a precursor in the manufacture of street drugs (e.g. methamphetamine) and its potential for abuse and toxicity. In the present study, the catecholamine reuptake inhibitors mazindol and nomifensine, the norepinephrine (NE) reuptake inhibitor desipramine, and the dopamine D(2)-like (e.g. D(2), D(3) and D(4)) agonist quinpirole substituted for (-)-ephedrine (>/=80% (-)-ephedrine-lever responding). The NE reuptake inhibitor nisoxetine, the D(1)-like (e.g. D(1) and D(5)) agonists (+/-)-SKF 38393 and SKF 82958, and the mixed D(1)-/D(2)-like agonist apomorphine occasioned intermediate levels of responding (50-79% (-)-ephedrine-lever responding). The (-)-ephedrine cue was antagonized by the D(1)-like antagonist SCH 23390 and the alpha(1)-adrenoceptor antagonist prazosin as well as the D(2)-like antagonists (-)-eticlopride and haloperidol, although only at doses that disrupted responding in some rats. The discriminative stimulus effects of a small dose of (-)-ephedrine (1.25 mg/kg) were enhanced by the alpha(2)-adrenoceptor antagonist idazoxan and to a lesser extent by the beta-adrenoceptor antagonist (-)-propranolol. However, the alpha(2)-adrenoceptor agonist clonidine (0.04 mg/kg) did not attenuate the (-)-ephedrine stimulus. These results suggest that D(1)-, D(2)-like, and alpha(1)-adrenergic receptors mediate the discriminative stimulus effects of (-)-ephedrine. Substitution of desipramine for (-)-ephedrine and not for some other stimulants suggests that NE transmission is a prominent feature of the (-)-ephedrine discriminative stimulus, and that NE underlies therapeutic and abuse-related effects of (-)-ephedrine that diverge from those of other stimulants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-1031, USA
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Abstract
This review article draws the attention to the many species of plants possessing activity on the central nervous system (CNS). In fact, they cover the whole spectrum of central activity such as psychoanaleptic, psycholeptic and psychodysleptic effects, and several of these plants are currently used in therapeutics to treat human ailments. Among the psychoanaleptic (stimulant) plants, those utilized by human beings to reduce body weight [Ephedra spp. (Ma Huang), Paullinia spp. (guaraná), Catha edulis Forssk. (khat)] and plants used to improve general health conditions (plant adaptogens) were scrutinized. Many species of hallucinogenic (psychodysleptic) plants are used by humans throughout the world to achieve states of mind distortions; among those, a few have been used for therapeutic purposes, such as Cannabis sativa L., Tabernanthe iboga Baill. and the mixture of Psychotria viridis Ruiz and Pav. and Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) C.V. Morton. Plants showing central psycholeptic activities, such as analgesic or anxiolytic actions (Passiflora incarnata L., Valeriana spp. and Piper methysticum G. Forst.), were also analysed.Finally, the use of crude or semipurified extracts of such plants instead of the active substances seemingly responsible for their therapeutic effect is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Carlini
- Department of Psychobiology, Paulista School of Medicine, Federal University of São Paulo, Rua: Botucatu, 862 Ed. Ciências Biomédicas, 1o andar, CEP 04023-062, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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Anderson KG, Winger G, Woods J, Woolverton WL. Reinforcing and discriminative-stimulus effects of ephedrine isomers in rhesus monkeys. Drug Alcohol Depend 2001; 65:45-53. [PMID: 11714589 DOI: 10.1016/s0376-8716(01)00143-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Ephedrine is a sympathomimetic drug that is currently found in many over-the-counter preparations. This compound exists as four isomers which, in addition to a racemic mixture, were evaluated for their positive reinforcing effects and for their similarity to (+)-amphetamine as a discriminative stimulus. Rhesus monkeys (N=3) with intravenous cocaine (0.1 mg/kg/inj) or saline as a consequence for lever pressing were shown to self-administer all of the ephedrine compounds (range tested: 0.03-3.0 mg/kg/inj), with the exception of (-)-pseudoephedrine, when each drug/dose was substituted for cocaine or saline during test sessions. However, the (-)-pseudoephedrine isomer was evaluated within a limited dose range due to solubility limitations. Systematically increasing the number of responses required for an injection indicated that these isomers were not as effective as reinforcers as was cocaine. Rhesus monkeys (N=3) trained to discriminate intragastric 1.0 mg/kg (+)-amphetamine from saline were given substitution tests with the ephedrine isomers and the racemic mixture. When given intragastrically, at least one dose of all the ephedrine isomers substituted for the (+)-amphetamine discriminative stimulus in at least one of the subjects tested. However, (+)-amphetamine-like effects were not systematically related to dose. When the discriminative-stimulus effects of (-)-ephedrine were also compared with those of (+)-amphetamine across three different routes of administration, full, dose-related, (+)-amphetamine-like responding was observed with both the intramuscular and intravenous routes. Taken together, these results suggest that the ephedrines have psychomotor stimulant-like abuse potential, lower than that of cocaine. Parenteral administration may enhance psychomotor-stimulant-like effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- K G Anderson
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500 North State Street, Jackson, MS, USA
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