Identification of a coelomic mitogenic factor in Eisenia foetida earthworm

Role of Antimicrobial Peptides in Immunity of Parasitic Leeches

The review summarizes the current state of knowledge about leech immunity, with emphasis on the special role of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), and highlights the wide variety of primary AMP structures, which seem to correlate with a variety of life strategies and the ecology of ectoparasites. Antimicrobial proteins and AMPs are a diverse class of natural molecules that are produced in all living organisms in response to an attack by a pathogen and are essential components of the immune system. AMPs can have a wide range of antibiotic activities against foreign and opportunistic bacteria, fungi, and viruses. AMPs play an important role in selection of colonizing bacterial symbionts, thus helping multicellular organisms to cope with certain environmental problems. AMPs are especially important for invertebrates, which lack an adaptive immune system. Although many AMPs are similar in physicochemical properties (a total length from 10 to 100 amino acids, a positive total charge, or a high cysteine content), their immunomodulatory activities are specific for each AMP type.

Alternative to FBS in animal cell culture - An overview and future perspective

Fetal bovine serum (FBS) is a widely used growth supplement in the in vitro culturing of animal and human cells, tissues and organs, notably due to the occurrence of abundant micro- and macronutrients, along with growth factors. Over the years, increasing demand, high price, batch-to-batch variability in quality and composition, increasing ethical concerns lead to the search for an alternative to FBS. Several approaches have been suggested and employed in the past, but none is implemented as widely as FBS, and each supplement has its own disadvantages. In this review, we described the importance of FBS in cell culture, discussed the issues associated with FBS use and presented the efforts made in the recent past to reduce or replace FBS. The potential of four different alternative sources to FBS, namely, bovine ocular fluid, sericin protein, human platelet lysate and earthworm heat inactivated coelomic fluid was evaluated. In the end, we present the conceptual perspective using the Human Platelet Lysate (HPL) and earthworm Heat Inactivated Coelomic Fluid (HI-CF) combination to alternate FBS and its context in scientific and economic impacts.

Environmental pollutants, pathogens and immune system in earthworms

Earthworms also known as farmer's friends are natural tillers of soil. They belong to Phylum Annelida and class Oligochaeta. Acid soils with organic matter and surface humus maintain the largest fauna of worms and earthworms. Due to their habitat in soil, they are constantly exposed to microbes and pollution generated by anthropogenic sources. Studies have revealed that damage of the immune system of earthworms can lead to alterations of both morphological and cellular characteristics of worms, activation of signalling pathways and can strongly influence their survival. Therefore, the understanding of the robust immune system in earthworms has become very important from the point of view of understanding its role in combating pathogens and pollutants and its role in indicating the soil pollution. In this article, we have outlined the (i) components of the immune system and (ii) their function of immunological responses on exposure to pollutants and pathogens. This study finds importance from the point of view of ecotoxicology and monitoring of earthworm health and exploring the scope of earthworm immune system components as biomarkers of pollutants and environmental toxicity. The future scope of this review remains in understanding the earthworm immunobiology and indicating strong biomarkers for pollution.

Earthworm-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles: A potent tool against hepatocellular carcinoma, Plasmodium falciparum parasites and malaria mosquitoes

The development of parasites and pathogens resistant to synthetic drugs highlighted the needing of novel, eco-friendly and effective control approaches. Recently, metal nanoparticles have been proposed as highly effective tools towards cancer cells and Plasmodium parasites. In this study, we synthesized silver nanoparticles (EW-AgNP) using Eudrilus eugeniae earthworms as reducing and stabilizing agents. EW-AgNP showed plasmon resonance reduction in UV-vis spectrophotometry, the functional groups involved in the reduction were studied by FTIR spectroscopy, while particle size and shape was analyzed by FESEM. The effect of EW-AgNP on in vitro HepG2 cell proliferation was measured using MTT assays. Apoptosis assessed by flow cytometry showed diminished endurance of HepG2 cells and cytotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner. EW-AgNP were toxic to Anopheles stephensi larvae and pupae, LC(50) were 4.8 ppm (I), 5.8 ppm (II), 6.9 ppm (III), 8.5 ppm (IV), and 15.5 ppm (pupae). The antiplasmodial activity of EW-AgNP was evaluated against CQ-resistant (CQ-r) and CQ-sensitive (CQ-s) strains of Plasmodium falciparum. EW-AgNP IC(50) were 49.3 μg/ml (CQ-s) and 55.5 μg/ml (CQ-r), while chloroquine IC(50) were 81.5 μg/ml (CQ-s) and 86.5 μg/ml (CQ-r). EW-AgNP showed a valuable antibiotic potential against important pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Concerning non-target effects of EW-AgNP against mosquito natural enemies, the predation efficiency of the mosquitofish Gambusia affinis towards the II and II instar larvae of A. stephensi was 68.50% (II) and 47.00% (III), respectively. In EW-AgNP-contaminated environments, predation was boosted to 89.25% (II) and 70.75% (III), respectively. Overall, this research highlighted the EW-AgNP potential against hepatocellular carcinoma, Plasmodium parasites and mosquito vectors, with little detrimental effects on mosquito natural enemies.

Origin of innate immune responses: revelation of food and medicinal applications

Much is known about the strong ecological impact that earthworms ( Qiū Yǐn; Pheretima) have on soil in terms of fertility, nutrient production, and tilling. Even more interesting though is the impact they have had on our understanding of innate immunity, and from this discovery, there has been a simultaneous recognition of their potential through their historical use as food and their use in treatment of certain chronic health problems that often afflict humans. This bifurcating growing knowledge base has stemmed from centuries of honing and practicing traditional and complementary forms of medicine such as Ayurveda (India) Traditional Chinese Medicine (China), Kampo (Japan), and Traditional Korean Medicine (Korea). Earthworms (Dilong) have also been credited as a model for research concerning the nervous and endocrine systems. One of the reasons behind the earthworm's tremendous impact on research into these biomedical endeavors is partly due to its lack of ethical restrictions, like those imposed on vertebrate models. Using invertebrate models as opposed to mice or other mammalian models bypasses ethical concerns. Moreover, financial constraints consistently hover over biological research that requires living subjects, preferably mammals. Earthworms are a rich source of several vital biological macromolecules and other nutrients. They have long been used as food in several cultures such as the Ye'Kuana in Venezuela, the Maori in New Zealand, and the nomadic populations in Papua New Guinea. Earthworms and their nutritious products have been shown to exert significant effects in treating humans for disorders of inflammation and blood coagulation. One area that continues to be examined is the earthworm's ability to regenerate lost appendages, and these effects have been extended to mammals. Evidence reveals that earthworm extracts may actually promote the regeneration of damaged nerves. This presentation will explore how earthworms may reveal significant advances and conclusions that decipher innate immunity. This is intimately associated with them as sources of their various nutritional and medicinal benefits.

Anticipating innate immunity without a Toll

Earthworm innate immunity depends upon small and large leukocytes (coelomocytes) that synthesize and secrete humoral antimicrobial molecules (e.g. lysenin, fetidin, eiseniapore, coelomic cytolytic factor [CCF]; Lumbricin I). Small coelomocytes (cytotoxic) are positive (CD11a, CD45RA, CD45RO, CDw49b, CD54, beta(2)-m and Thy-1 [CD90]; CD24; TNF-alpha) but negative using other mammalian markers. Large coelomocytes (phagocytic) are uniformly negative. Specific earthworm anti-EFCC 1, 2, 3, 4 mAbs are negative for Drosophila melanogaster hemocytes and mammalian cells but positive those of earthworms. Coelomocytes contain several lysosomal enzymes involved in phagocytosis and a pattern recognition molecule (CCF) that may trigger the prophenoloxidase cascade a crucial innate immune response. Earthworms and other invertebrates possess natural, non-specific, non-clonal, and non-anticipatory immune response governed by germ line genes. Toll and Toll-like receptor signaling is essential for phagocytosis and antimicrobial peptide synthesis and secretion in insects and vertebrates but has not yet been shown to be essential in earthworm innate responses.

Biology of Lysenin, a Protein in the Coelomic Fluid of the Earthworm Eisenia foetida

Lysenin is a protein of 33?kDa in the coelomic fluid (CF) of the earthworm Eisenia foetida. It differs from other biologically active proteins, such as fetidins, eiseniapore, and coelomic cytolytic factor (CCF-1), that have been found in Eisenia foetida, in terms of both its biochemical and its biological characteristics. The large coelomocytes and free chloragocytes in the typhlosole of Eisenia foetida appear to be the cells that produce lysenin since the mRNA for lysenin and immunoreactive lysenin have been found in these cells. Lysenin binds specifically to sphingomyelin (SM) but not to other phospholipids in cell membranes. After binding to the cell membranes of target cells, lysenin forms oligomers in an SM-dependent manner, with subsequent formation of pores with a hydrodynamic diameter of approximately 3?nm. The biochemical interactions between lysenin and SM in cell membranes are responsible for the pharmacological activities of lysenin and of CF that contains lysenin in vertebrates, such as hemolysis, cytotoxicity, and contraction of smooth muscle in vitro and vasodepressor activity and lethality in vivo. When incubated with SM-liposomes, CF and lysenin lost some or all of their activity, an observation that suggests that SM might be involved in the induction of the various activities of lysenin and CF. However, in general, lysenin is neither cytotoxic nor lethal to invertebrates. An attempt has been made to explain the differences in the responses to lysenin and CF between vertebrates and invertebrates in terms of the presence or absence of SM in the various animals. Among Protostomia, SM is absent in Lophotrochozoa, with the exception of some molluscan species, but it is present in Ecdysozoa, with the exception of Nematomorpha and flies. Among Deuterostomia, Echinodermata and Hemichordata lack SM but SM is found in Chordata. Thus, the difference in terms of the response to lysenin between invertebrates and vertebrates cannot be fully explained by reference to the presence or absence of SM in the organism. Lysenin and its antiserum have made it possible to localize SM in the cell membranes. They should be a useful tool for studies of membrane physiology and the role of SM.

Fluorescence fingerprints of Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei¶

We describe a fluorescent method that allows to differentiate the worms Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei. In fact, the coelomic fluid of E. andrei displays specific fluorescence absent in that of E. fetida. The two species do not metabolize the same types of molecules and thus can be differentiated at the molecular level. Each species has specific fluorescence fingerprints.

Digging for innate immunity since Darwin and Metchnikoff

Immune systems are, increasingly, being studied from comparative perspectives. The analysis of the immune-defense systems of invertebrates, such as fruit flies and earthworms, is an important part of this effort. These systems are innate, natural non-specific, non-anticipatory and non-clonal. This is in contrast to the macrophage T and B systems that characterize vertebrate adaptive immunity whose properties can be categorized as adaptive, induced, specific, anticipatory, and clonal. In this review, we will focus on the earthworm system. Earthworms, like other complex invertebrates, possess several leukocyte types and synthesize and secrete a variety of immunoprotective molecules. The system as a whole effects phagocytosis, encapsulation, agglutination, opsonization, clotting and lysis of foreign components. At least two major leukocytes, small coelomocytes, and large coelomocytes mediate lytic reactions against several targets. Destruction of tumor cells in vitro shows that phagocytosis and natural killer cell responses are distinct properties of coelomocytes. A third type, the chlorogogen cell, synthesizes and sheds effector lytic molecules. Among the lytic molecules, three have been identified and sequenced (fetidins, CCF-1, lysenin) and another has been discovered (eiseniapore), while three other molecules, H(1) H(2) H(3), share agglutinating and lysing functions. In contrast to these, Lumbricin I is the only known molecule of the earthworm system that is antimicrobial but non-lytic. Altogether the cellular and humoral components of the earthworm system function to distinguish between self and not self, dispose of internal (cancer?), damaged components and external antigens (microbes). The evolutionary context of the earthworm innate immune system is discussed at the end of this article.

Earthworm leukocytes react with different mammalian antigen-specific monoclonal antibodies

We identified conserved molecules (enzymes, peptides, cytokines) that might play a role in invertebrate innate immunity. We found these molecules by immunoserological and immunohistochemical methods in association with coelomocytes, leukocytes located in the coelomic cavity of the earthworm Eisenia foetida. We detected the enzyme Cu-Zn-superoxide-dismutase (SOD), cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha, TNFalpha; transforming growth factor-alpha, TGFalpha; and alpha peptide hormone, thyreotrope stimulating hormone, TSH) in earthworm coelomocytes with monoclonal antibodies developed originally against human and/or mouse antigens. Three coelomocyte subpopulations were identified according to their form, size and granularity by microscopic and flow cytometric analysis. These cell populations showed different reactivity with antibodies against mammalian cell surface (CD) markers and different intracellular antigens. Two coelomocyte types showed cell surface positivity with anti-Thy-1 (CD90), CD24 and TNF-alpha antibodies. Strong cytoplasmic reaction was shown with anti-TNF-alpha and anti-SOD mAbs and a weaker but unambiguous reaction with thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in two cell populations. The third population was negative for all of the monoclonal antibodies. Our flow cytometric results were confirmed by confocal microscopy both on the cell surfaces and intracellularly.

Toxicity of coelomic fluid of the earthworm Eisenia foetida to vertebrates but not invertebrates: probable role of sphingomyelin

The coelomic fluid (CF) of the earthworm Eisenia foetida exhibits a wide variety of biological activities. We found that the CF was not toxic to 42 species, belonging to seven invertebrate phyla, almost all in aquatic adults and larvae exposed to CF. Eleven teleostean species tested died in 0.2-1% CF mostly between 10 and 120 min and the effects were dose-dependent. Tadpoles of the toad Bufo japonicus formosus died in 0.4-2% CF between 80 and 225 min depending upon size, with larger tadpoles surviving longer. Before dying, all experimental tadpoles developed curled and shrunken tails. The Okinawa tree lizard, soft-shelled turtle, Japanese quail, mouse and rat all died after i.v. injection of CF (above 20 microl/kg). Thus, CF was not toxic to invertebrates, but toxic to vertebrates. After heating, CF lost its toxicity to fish, tadpoles and mice. Both CF and lysenin incubated with sphingomyelin-liposomes (SM-liposomes) were no longer toxic, suggesting the involvement of SM in the toxicity. Lysenin, which is a constituent of CF and known to bind specifically to sphingomyelin, exhibited toxicity similar to that of CF. Thus, lysenin in CF is probably responsible for the toxic effects of CF by binding to SM in vertebrate tissues. The bodies of invertebrates might contain little or no SM, while those of vertebrates do contain SM. The coelomic fluid of the earthworm Pheretima communissima has no toxicity to mouse.