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Galinsky AD, Turek A, Agarwal G, Anicich EM, Rucker DD, Bowles HR, Liberman N, Levin C, Magee JC. Are many sex/gender differences really power differences? PNAS NEXUS 2024; 3:pgae025. [PMID: 38415218 PMCID: PMC10898859 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
This research addresses the long-standing debate about the determinants of sex/gender differences. Evolutionary theorists trace many sex/gender differences back to natural selection and sex-specific adaptations. Sociocultural and biosocial theorists, in contrast, emphasize how societal roles and social power contribute to sex/gender differences beyond any biological distinctions. By connecting two empirical advances over the past two decades-6-fold increases in sex/gender difference meta-analyses and in experiments conducted on the psychological effects of power-the current research offers a novel empirical examination of whether power differences play an explanatory role in sex/gender differences. Our analyses assessed whether experimental manipulations of power and sex/gender differences produce similar psychological and behavioral effects. We first identified 59 findings from published experiments on power. We then conducted a P-curve of the experimental power literature and established that it contained evidential value. We next subsumed these effects of power into 11 broad categories and compared them to 102 similar meta-analytic sex/gender differences. We found that high-power individuals and men generally display higher agency, lower communion, more positive self-evaluations, and similar cognitive processes. Overall, 71% (72/102) of the sex/gender differences were consistent with the effects of experimental power differences, whereas only 8% (8/102) were opposite, representing a 9:1 ratio of consistent-to-inconsistent effects. We also tested for discriminant validity by analyzing whether power corresponds more strongly to sex/gender differences than extraversion: although extraversion correlates with power, it has different relationships with sex/gender differences. These results offer novel evidence that many sex/gender differences may be explained, in part, by power differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D Galinsky
- Management Division, Columbia University, New York City, NY 10027, USA
| | - Aurora Turek
- Organizational Behavior Unit, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02163, USA
| | - Grusha Agarwal
- Organizational Behaviour & Human Resource Management Department, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 1P5, Canada
| | - Eric M Anicich
- Management & Organization Department, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Derek D Rucker
- Marketing Department, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Hannah R Bowles
- Organizational Behavior Unit, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02163, USA
| | - Nira Liberman
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Chloe Levin
- Management Division, Columbia University, New York City, NY 10027, USA
| | - Joe C Magee
- Management & Organizations Department, New York University, New York City, NY 10012, USA
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2
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Zhang L, Jin Y, Xia L, Xu B, Syed Abdullah SM. The Effects of Social Distance and Asymmetric Reward and Punishment on Individual Cooperative Behavior in Dilemma Situations. Front Psychol 2022; 13:816168. [PMID: 35519657 PMCID: PMC9063838 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.816168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The behavior decisions in social dilemmas are highlighted in sociological, economic, and social psychological studies. Across two studies, the iterated prisoner's dilemma is used as a basic paradigm to explore the effects of social distance and asymmetric reward and punishment on an individual's cooperative behavior. Experiment 1 (N = 80) used a 2 (social distance: intimacy vs. strangeness) × 2 (symmetry of rewards: symmetric rewards vs. asymmetric rewards) within-subject design and demonstrated that when there were only two options, namely, cooperation and defection, cooperative behavior was influenced by social distance and symmetry of rewards, respectively, and the interaction was not significant. Experiment 2 (N = 80) used a 2 (social distance: intimacy vs. strangeness) × 2 (symmetry of punishment: symmetric punishment vs. asymmetric punishment) within-subject design and showed that the cooperative behavior of participants decreased when the punishment option was added, and the two levels of symmetry and asymmetry were set. Specifically, compared with the symmetric punishment group, the asymmetric punishment group was more likely to choose a defection strategy and less likely to use a punishment strategy. Moreover, there was a marginal interaction effect between social distance and symmetry of punishment, and symmetry of punishment was a significant mediator in the relationship between social distance and individual cooperation. Specifically, asymmetric punishment reduced only the cooperation rate (CR) between participants and their friends. In conclusion, in dilemma situations, asymmetric reward did not influence individual cooperative behavior at different social distances, while asymmetric punishment did, because the sense of loss was more likely to awaken an individual's social comparison motives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia
| | - Yan Jin
- School of Education Sciences, Huizhou University, Huizhou, China
| | - Lin Xia
- Wuhan Fingu Electronic Technology Co., Ltd., Wuhan, China
| | - Bibo Xu
- Institute of Education, Hubei University, Wuhan, China
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Carrasco MA, Delgado B, Holgado-Tello FP. Children's Temperament: A Bridge between Mothers' Parenting and Aggression. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E6382. [PMID: 32887232 PMCID: PMC7504557 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17176382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Childhood aggression is important to acknowledge due to its social impact and importance in predicting future problems. The temperament of a child and parental socialization have been essential in explaining behavioral problems, particularly in the case of childhood aggression. The aim of this study is to examine-from the parents' perspective-the role of childhood temperament in the dynamic by which mothers' reactions socialize their children's aggression. We also explore how children's gender and age differences affect these relationships. The sample was composed of 904 participants between 1 and 6 years old. The Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire and the Children's Behavior Questionnaire were used to evaluate children's negative affect and effortful control. The Parent-Child Relationship Inventory Maternal was used to assess maternal communication and discipline, and child aggression was assessed using the Children's Behavior Checklist. The results supported the mediating role of temperament in the processes by which perceived mothers' reactions socialize their children's aggression and suggested that maternal behaviors may not have the same consequences for girls and boys. Specifically, the aggressiveness of girls is dependent on a negative affect throughout toddlerhood and early childhood, while for boys, the duration of the negative affect's contribution is shorter, and aggressiveness is more sensitive to the maternal behaviors of discipline and communication.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Francisco Pablo Holgado-Tello
- Faculty of Psychology, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), Campus Norte, Calle de Juan del Rosal, 10, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (M.A.C.); (B.D.)
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4
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Is academic diligence domain-specific or domain-general? An investigation of the math, verbal, and spatial academic diligence tasks with middle schoolers. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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5
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Allen JWP, Lewis M. Who peeks: Cognitive, emotional, behavioral, socialization, and child correlates of preschoolers’ resistance to temptation. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/17405629.2019.1665014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Lewis
- Institute for the Study of Child Development, Department of Pediatrics, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
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6
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Silverman IW. Gender differences in young children’s compliance to maternal directives: A meta-analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0165025419851861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Evolutionary theory and several lines of evidence suggest that the motive to establish positive relationships with others is stronger in females than males. Accordingly, it was predicted that in young children, girls would be more likely than boys to comply with their mothers’ directives. To test this prediction, the present meta-analysis examined gender differences in compliance to maternal directives in young children (ages 1–7 years) as assessed on structured tasks. The meta-analysis was performed on 80 effect sizes derived from 49 studies conducted in 10 countries. Two categories of studies were distinguished: those that assessed compliance with respect to the child’s presumed motives for performing compliant and those that assessed compliance without reference to the child’s presumed motives. For the former category of studies, girls were higher in internally motivated compliance whether the task required performing an action or not performing an action, and boys were higher in externally motivated compliance when the task required not performing an action. For the latter category of studies, results were mixed, with some evidence indicating that girls were higher in compliance. No evidence was found indicating that the magnitude of the gender differences changed with age. One caveat is that the effect sizes analyzed might have been attenuated due to measurement error. Discussion focuses on a number of explanations that may be offered to account for the gender differences found in internally motivated compliance favoring girls.
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7
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Archer J. The reality and evolutionary significance of human psychological sex differences. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:1381-1415. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- John Archer
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of Central Lancashire Preston Lancashire PR1 2HE U.K
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8
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Li J, Ye H, Tang Y, Zhou Z, Hu X. What Are the Effects of Self-Regulation Phases and Strategies for Chinese Students? A Meta-Analysis of Two Decades Research of the Association Between Self-Regulation and Academic Performance. Front Psychol 2018; 9:2434. [PMID: 30618912 PMCID: PMC6305361 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Self-regulated learning refers to the monitoring and controlling of one's own cognitive performance before, during, and after a learning episode. Previous literature suggested that self-regulated learning had a significant relationship with academic achievement, but not all self-regulated learning strategies exerted the same influences. Using an invalid strategy may waste the limited psychological resources, which will cause the ego depletion effect. The present meta-analysis study intended to search for the best self-regulated learning strategies and inefficient strategies for Chinese students in elementary and secondary school, and analyzed the critical phases of self-regulated learning according to Zimmerman's theory. The moderating effects of gender, grade, and publication year were also analyzed. Methods: Empirical studies which conducted in real teaching situations of elementary and secondary education were systematically searched using Chinese academic databases. Studies focused on undergraduate students, students of special education, or online learning environments were excluded. Fifty-five cross-sectional studies and four intervention studies (which generated 264 independent samples) were included with a total sample size of 23,497 participants. Random effects model was chosen in the current meta-analysis, and publication bias was also examined. Results: The results indicated that the overall effect size of self-regulated learning on academic achievement was small for primary and secondary school students in China. The effect sizes of self-efficacy, task strategies, and self-evaluation were relatively higher than other strategies. Self-regulated learning strategies have the largest effect size on science disciplines (including mathematics and physics). Performance phase and self-reflection phase are key phases of self-regulated learning. From 1998 to 2016, the effect size between self-regulated learning and academic achievement was gradually decreasing. Conclusions: The main findings of the current study showed that self-efficacy, task strategies, and self-evaluation were key self-regulated learning strategies for Chinese students. Performance phase and self-reflection phase played significant roles in the process of self-regulated learning. Future studies need to include more intervention studies with rigorous treatment fidelity control and provide more empirical evidence from online learning, so as to compare the different effects of self-regulated learning between traditional education and online education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyi Li
- School of Teacher Education and Psychology, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China.,School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
| | - Hui Ye
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yun Tang
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China.,Central China Normal University Branch, Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment toward Basic Education Quality, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior, Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
| | - Zongkui Zhou
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China.,Central China Normal University Branch, Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment toward Basic Education Quality, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior, Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiangen Hu
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China.,Central China Normal University Branch, Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment toward Basic Education Quality, Wuhan, China.,Institute for Intelligent Systems, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, United States
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Toplak ME, West RF, Stanovich KE. Real-World Correlates of Performance on Heuristics and Biases Tasks in a Community Sample. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.1973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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10
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Ding XP, Omrin DS, Evans AD, Fu G, Chen G, Lee K. Elementary school children's cheating behavior and its cognitive correlates. J Exp Child Psychol 2014; 121:85-95. [PMID: 24464240 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2013.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Revised: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Elementary school children's cheating behavior and its cognitive correlates were investigated using a guessing game. Children (n=95) between 8 and 12 years of age were asked to guess which side of the screen a coin would appear on and received rewards based on their self-reported accuracy. Children's cheating behavior was measured by examining whether children failed to adhere to the game rules by falsely reporting their accuracy. Children's theory-of-mind understanding and executive functioning skills were also assessed. The majority of children cheated during the guessing game, and cheating behavior decreased with age. Children with better working memory and inhibitory control were less likely to cheat. However, among the cheaters, those with greater cognitive flexibility use more tactics while cheating. Results revealed the unique role that executive functioning plays in children's cheating behavior: Like a double-edged sword, executive functioning can inhibit children's cheating behavior, on the one hand, while it can promote the sophistication of children's cheating tactics, on the other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Pan Ding
- Hangzhou College of Preschool Education, Zhejiang Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310012, China
| | - Danielle S Omrin
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5R 2X2, Canada
| | - Angela D Evans
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada
| | - Genyue Fu
- Hangzhou College of Preschool Education, Zhejiang Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310012, China.
| | - Guopeng Chen
- School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China
| | - Kang Lee
- Hangzhou College of Preschool Education, Zhejiang Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310012, China; Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5R 2X2, Canada.
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11
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Unterrainer JM, Ruh N, Loosli SV, Heinze K, Rahm B, Kaller CP. Planning steps forward in development: in girls earlier than in boys. PLoS One 2013; 8:e80772. [PMID: 24312240 PMCID: PMC3842368 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of planning ability in children initially aged four and five was examined longitudinally with a retest-interval of 12 months using the Tower of London task. As expected, problems to solve straightforward without mental look-ahead were mastered by most, even the youngest children. Problems demanding look-ahead were more difficult and accuracy improved significantly with age and over time. This development was strongly moderated by sex: In contrast to coeval boys, four year old girls showed an impressive performance enhancement at age five, reaching the performance of six year olds, whereas four year old boys lagged behind and caught up with girls at the age of six, the typical age of school enrollment. This sex-specific development of planning was clearly separated from overall intelligence: young boys showed a steeper increase in raw intelligence scores than girls, whereas in the older groups scores developed similarly. The observed sex differences in planning development are evident even within a narrow time window of twelve months and may relate to differences in maturational trajectories for girls and boys in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef M. Unterrainer
- Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology, University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Nina Ruh
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Brain Imaging Center, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sandra V. Loosli
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Brain Imaging Center, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Katharina Heinze
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Brain Imaging Center, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Cochlear Implant Center Erlangen, Ear, Nose and Throat (ENT) Department, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Benjamin Rahm
- Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology, University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Christoph P. Kaller
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Brain Imaging Center, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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12
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Kok R, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH, Velders FP, Linting M, Jaddoe VW, Hofman A, Verhulst FC, Tiemeier H. The role of maternal stress during pregnancy, maternal discipline, and child COMT Val158Met genotype in the development of compliance. Dev Psychobiol 2012; 55:451-64. [DOI: 10.1002/dev.21049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2011] [Accepted: 04/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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13
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Kiff CJ, Lengua LJ, Zalewski M. Nature and nurturing: parenting in the context of child temperament. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 2011; 14:251-301. [PMID: 21461681 PMCID: PMC3163750 DOI: 10.1007/s10567-011-0093-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 279] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Accounting for both bidirectional and interactive effects between parenting and child temperament can fine-tune theoretical models of the role of parenting and temperament in children's development of adjustment problems. Evidence for bidirectional and interactive effects between parenting and children's characteristics of frustration, fear, self-regulation, and impulsivity was reviewed, and an overall model of children's individual differences in response to parenting is proposed. In general, children high in frustration, impulsivity and low in effortful control are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of negative parenting, while in turn, many negative parenting behaviors predict increases in these characteristics. Frustration, fearfulness, and effortful control also appear to elicit parenting behaviors that can predict increases in these characteristics. Irritability renders children more susceptible to negative parenting behaviors. Fearfulness operates in a very complex manner, sometimes increasing children's responses to parenting behaviors and sometimes mitigating them and apparently operating differently across gender. Important directions for future research include the use of study designs and analytic approaches that account for the direction of effects and for developmental changes in parenting and temperament over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cara J Kiff
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Box 351525, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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14
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Callender KA, Olson SL, Kerr DCR, Sameroff AJ. Assessment of cheating behavior in young school-age children: distinguishing normative behaviors from risk markers of externalizing psychopathology. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL FOR THE SOCIETY OF CLINICAL CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY, AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, DIVISION 53 2010; 39:776-88. [PMID: 21058125 PMCID: PMC4133741 DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2010.517165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The central goal of this longitudinal study was to develop a laboratory-based index of children's covert cheating behavior that distinguished normative rule violations from those that signal risk for antisocial behavior. Participants (N = 215 children) were drawn from a community population and oversampled for externalizing behavior problems (EXT). Cheating behavior was measured using two resistance-to-temptation tasks and coded for extent of cheating, latency to cheat, and inappropriate positive affect. Mothers rated internalized conduct and three forms of self-regulation: inhibitory control, impulsivity, and affective distress. Mothers and teachers reported EXT concurrently (T1) and 4 years later, when children averaged 10 years of age (T2). Children categorized as severe cheaters manifested lower inhibitory control, greater impulsivity, and lower levels of internalized conduct at T1. Children in this group also manifested higher levels of EXT in home and school settings at T1 and more EXT in the school setting at T2, even after accounting for T1 ratings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin A Callender
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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Lengua LJ. Anxiousness, Frustration, and Effortful Control as Moderators of the Relation between Parenting and Adjustment in Middle-childhood. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00438.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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16
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Baumann N, Kuhl J. How to Resist Temptation: The Effects of External Control Versus Autonomy Support on Self-Regulatory Dynamics. J Pers 2005; 73:443-70. [PMID: 15745437 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00315.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the present study (N=80 undergraduate students) was to examine two issues: first, does external control lead to an increase in resistance to temptation more than the use of autonomy support? Second, what are the long-term effects of these types of educational style? Based on the Personality Systems Interaction (PSI) theory, external control was expected to increase resistance to temptation for those participants who lack initiative and self-motivation (i.e., state-oriented participants). Consistent with expectations, resistance to temptation was greater for state-oriented participants with externally controlled instructions than for individuals who received autonomy-supportive instructions. This was reflected by their performance on a visual discrimination task during distracter, compared to baseline, episodes. However, external control had negative long-term effects on state-oriented participants as indexed by alienation from their own preferences in free-choice behavior. Action-oriented participants were less influenced by experimental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Baumann
- Department of Psychology, University of Osnabrück, Germany.
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17
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Carlson SM. Executive Function in Context: Development, Measurement, Theory, and Experience. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2003. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-5834.2003.06803012.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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18
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Carlson SM. Executive Function in Context: Development, Measurement, Theory, and Experience. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2003. [DOI: 10.1111/j.0037-976x.2003.00270.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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