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Aoyama T, Shibayama Y, Furukawa T, Sugawara M, Takekuma Y. Continuous Cytostatic Effects of BCR-ABL Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors (TKIs) after Washout in Human Leukemic K562 Cells. Biol Pharm Bull 2019; 42:1805-1813. [DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b19-00185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Aoyama
- Laboratory of Pharmacokinetics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University
| | - Yoshihiko Shibayama
- Department of Drug Fomulation, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido
| | - Tatsuhiko Furukawa
- Department of Molecular Oncology, Graduate School Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima University
| | - Mitsuru Sugawara
- Laboratory of Pharmacokinetics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University
| | - Yoh Takekuma
- Laboratory of Pharmacokinetics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University
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2
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Long S, Sousa E, Kijjoa A, Pinto MMM. Marine Natural Products as Models to Circumvent Multidrug Resistance. Molecules 2016; 21:molecules21070892. [PMID: 27399665 PMCID: PMC6273648 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21070892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) to anticancer drugs is a serious health problem that in many cases leads to cancer treatment failure. The ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp), which leads to premature efflux of drugs from cancer cells, is often responsible for MDR. On the other hand, a strategy to search for modulators from natural products to overcome MDR had been in place during the last decades. However, Nature limits the amount of some natural products, which has led to the development of synthetic strategies to increase their availability. This review summarizes the research findings on marine natural products and derivatives, mainly alkaloids, polyoxygenated sterols, polyketides, terpenoids, diketopiperazines, and peptides, with P-gp inhibitory activity highlighting the established structure-activity relationships. The synthetic pathways for the total synthesis of the most promising members and analogs are also presented. It is expected that the data gathered during the last decades concerning their synthesis and MDR-inhibiting activities will help medicinal chemists develop potential drug candidates using marine natural products as models which can deliver new ABC transporter inhibitor scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solida Long
- Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto 4050-313, Portugal.
| | - Emília Sousa
- Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto 4050-313, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), Porto 4050-123, Portugal.
| | - Anake Kijjoa
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), Porto 4050-123, Portugal.
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto, Porto 4050-123, Portugal.
| | - Madalena M M Pinto
- Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto 4050-313, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), Porto 4050-123, Portugal.
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Zhao YY, Yu L, Liu BL, He XJ, Zhang BY. Downregulation of P-gp, Ras and p-ERK1/2 contributes to the arsenic trioxide-induced reduction in drug resistance towards doxorubicin in gastric cancer cell lines. Mol Med Rep 2015; 12:7335-43. [PMID: 26459009 PMCID: PMC4626124 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2015.4367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) to doxorubicin (DOX) limits its effectiveness against tumor cells. Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) has been reported to reduce MDR in various types of cancer, but the mechanisms involving Ras and p-glycoprotein (P-gp) remain to be fully elucidated. The objectives of the present study were to evaluate As2O3 in reversing MDR to DOX, and to identify the association in antitumor activities between the effectiveness of DOX and Ras/phosphorylated (p-) extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 signaling in SGC7901/ADM and SGC7901/S human gastric cancer cell lines. Cytotoxicity and sensitivity towards As2O3 were assessed using non-toxic and mildly-toxic concentrations (0.1 and 0.5 µM, respectively). The reversing effect of As2O3 on MDR was investigated prior to and following treatment with a cytokine activation of the recombinant human granulocyte colony stimulating factor ERK pathway. The SGC7901/ADM and SGC7901/S cells had the same sensitivity to As2O3. The SGC7901/ADM cells were resistant to DOX and As2O3 treatment reduced the level of resistance to DOX (P<0.01). The expression of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) in the SGC7901/ADM cells was higher than in the SGC7901/S cells (P<0.001). As2O3 treatment decreased the levels of P-gp in a time- and dose-dependent manner (P<0.01). The expression of Ras was higher in the SGC7901/ADM cells than in the SGC7901/S cells, while the expression of p-ERK1/2 remained the same. As2O3 decreased the levels of Ras and p-ERK1/2 (P<0.01). Following pretreatment with rhG-CSF, the levels of Ras and p-ERK1/2 were further decreased (P<0.01). Drug-resistant gastric cancer cells had higher expression levels of P-gp and Ras, but not of p-ERK1/2. Non- and mildly-toxic doses of As2O3 reduced MDR to DOX through Ras/p-ERK1/2 signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Yuan Zhao
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
| | - Li Yu
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
| | - Bao-Ling Liu
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
| | - Xin-Jia He
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
| | - Bi-Yuan Zhang
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
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Au A, Baba AA, Azlan H, Norsa'adah B, Ankathil R. Clinical impact of ABCC1 and ABCC2 genotypes and haplotypes in mediating imatinib resistance among chronic myeloid leukaemia patients. J Clin Pharm Ther 2014; 39:685-90. [PMID: 25060527 DOI: 10.1111/jcpt.12197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2014] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE The introduction and success of imatinib mesylate (IM) has brought about a paradigm shift in chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) treatment. However, despite the high efficacy of IM, clinical resistance develops due to a heterogeneous array of mechanisms. Pharmacogenetic variability as a result of genetic polymorphisms could be one of the most important factors influencing resistance to IM. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between genetic variations in drug efflux transporter ABCC1 (MRP1) and ABCC2 (MRP2) genes and response to IM in patients with CML. METHODS We genotyped 215 Malaysian patients with CML (comprising of two groups with 108 IM resistant and 107 IM responsive) for polymorphisms of ABCC1 (2012G>T and 2168G>A) and ABCC2 (-24C>T, 1249G>A and 3972C>T) genes. Genotype, allele and haplotype frequencies were compared between two groups of patients. Patients with CML were further stratified according to their clinical response to IM into those having cytogenetics and molecular responses, and the associations with genotypes were evaluated. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION We observed no significant differences in the distribution of any of the tested genotypes between the investigated groups. However, on evaluating the risk association, ABCC2 T₋₂₄ G₁₂₄₉ T₃₉₇₂ haplotype was found to be associated with IM resistance (P = 0·046). These results suggest that haplotype variants -24T and 3972T might be associated with lower expression of ABCC2 protein and reduced transport activity and hence might be contributing to development of IM resistance. WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION Our results suggest the ABCC2 T₋₂₄ G₁₂₄₉ T₃₉₇₂ haplotype was associated with imatinib resistance. However, the evidence is as yet insufficient to establish this haplotype as a predictive biomarker for response to the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Au
- Human Genome Centre, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
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5
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Zou Z, Zhang J, Zhang H, Liu H, Li Z, Cheng D, Chen J, Liu L, Ni M, Zhang Y, Yao J, Zhou J, Fu J, Liang Y. 3-Methyladenine can depress drug efflux transporters via blocking the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway thus sensitizing MDR cancer to chemotherapy. J Drug Target 2014; 22:839-48. [PMID: 25019701 DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2014.936870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Multi-drug resistance (MDR) cancer is an intractable problem. Over-expression of drug efflux transporters such as ABCB1, ABCC1 and ABCG2 contributes to it, by which they pump drugs out of cells, and result in the decrease in the efficacy of chemotherapy. To reverse the cancer MDR, we used 3-methyladenine (3-MA) treatment on taxol or doxorubicin stressed MDR cell lines A2780DX5 and SGC7091R and xeno-tumor implanted mice. The results indicate that ABCB1, ABCC1 and ABCG2 were depressed, and the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway was blocked. Moreover, using FITC-labeled taxol as the indicator, we observed that the drug accumulation was enhanced in MDR cells and more cells were killed after 3-MA administration. Thus suggesting that 3-MA can reverse cancer MDR via depressing agent-efflux transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyou Zou
- Institute of Tumor, Medical School, Taizhou University , Taizhou , China
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Bhamidipati PK, Kantarjian H, Cortes J, Cornelison AM, Jabbour E. Management of imatinib-resistant patients with chronic myeloid leukemia. Ther Adv Hematol 2013; 4:103-17. [PMID: 23610618 PMCID: PMC3629755 DOI: 10.1177/2040620712468289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Since its approval in 2001 for frontline management of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), imatinib has proven to be very effective in achieving high remission rates and improving prognosis. However, up to 33% of patients will not achieve optimal response. This has led researchers to develop new second- and third-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors. In this article, we review the mechanisms of resistance, recommendations for monitoring, assessment of milestones, and management options for patients with CML who are resistant to imatinib therapy. We further explain the potential pitfalls that can lead to unnecessary discontinuation, the prognosis of patients whose condition fails to respond to treatment, and the upcoming therapies.
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Yi Z, Li XY, Gao Q, Tang LJ, Chu X. Aptamer-aided target capturing with biocatalytic metal deposition: an electrochemical platform for sensitive detection of cancer cells. Analyst 2013; 138:2032-7. [PMID: 23420020 DOI: 10.1039/c3an36474g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A novel aptamer biosensor for cancer cell assay has been reported on the basis of ultrasensitive electrochemical detection. Cancer cell capturing is first accomplished via aptamer-aided recognition, and the cell-aptamer binding events then mediate an alkaline phosphatase-catalyzed silver deposition reaction which can be probed by electrochemical detection. Following biocatalytic silver deposition, an efficient amplification approach for sensitive electrochemical measurements is demonstrated, for cell detection with high sensitivity. Ramos cell are used as a model case, a typical biomarker of the acute blood cell cancer, Burkitt's lymphoma. The results reveal that the developed technique displays desirable selectivity in Ramos cell discrimination, and linear response range from 10 to 10(6) cells with a detection limit as low as 10 cells. Due to the simple procedures, label-free and electrochemistry based detection format, this technique is simple and cost-effective, and exhibits excellent compatibility with miniaturization technologies. The electrochemical cell detection strategy may create an intrinsically specific and sensitive platform for cancer cell assay and associated studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi Yi
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, PR China
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Tanaka MF, Kantarjian H, Cortes J, Ohanian M, Jabbour E. Treatment options for chronic myeloid leukemia. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2012; 13:815-28. [PMID: 22429140 DOI: 10.1517/14656566.2012.671296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The bcr-abl tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are the cornerstone treatment for chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). However, there are many topics related to therapy that remain debated. AREAS COVERED The aim of this paper is to give the reader a comprehensive review of how to treat CML at diagnosis, how to monitor the disease and a brief read of special populations and case scenarios. It describes the first-line (imatinib) and second-line (nilotinib and dasatinib) TKIs currently used for the treatment of CML, including landmark studies proving their efficacy, side effect profile, dosage and use in special populations. It also reviews the current guidelines regarding treatment and monitoring of the disease while on TKIs, along with an overview of treatment in advanced stages, the role of allogeneic stem cell transplantation and investigational drugs. EXPERT OPINION Although imatinib represented a mayor therapeutic advancement over conventional chemotherapy, second-generation TKIs offer higher rates of optimal response and should be used as the frontline therapy. Patients with the T315I mutation carry a worse prognosis and should be offered allogeneic stem cell transplantation. The treatment in advanced stages of CML remains suboptimal and bench, translational and clinical research is encouraged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Florencia Tanaka
- Baylor College of Medicine, Hematology/Oncology Department, 1709 Dryden Rd, Room 574, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Figueroa-González G, Jacobo-Herrera N, Zentella-Dehesa A, Pereda-Miranda R. Reversal of multidrug resistance by morning glory resin glycosides in human breast cancer cells. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2012; 75:93-97. [PMID: 22148475 DOI: 10.1021/np200864m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Reversal of multidrug resistance (MDR) by thirty resin glycosides from the morning glory family (Convolvulaceae) was evaluated in vinblastine-resistant human breast carcinoma cells (MCF-7/Vin). The effects of these amphipathic compounds on the cytotoxicity and P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-mediated MDR were estimated with the sulforhodamine B colorimetric assay. Active noncytotoxic compounds exerted a potentiation effect of vinblastine susceptibility by 1- to over 1906-fold at tested concentrations of 5 and 25 μg/mL. Murucoidin V (1) enhanced vinblastine activity 255-fold when incorporated at 25 μg/mL and also, based on flow cytometry, significantly increased the intracellular accumulation of rhodamine 123 with the use of reserpine as a positive control for a MDR reversal agent. Incubation of MCF-7/Vin cells with 1 caused an increase in uptake and notably lowered the efflux rate of rhodamine 123. Decreased expression of P-glycoprotein by compound 1 was detected by immunofluorescence flow cytometry after incubation with an anti-P-gp monoclonal antibody. These results suggest that resin glycosides represent potential efflux pump inhibitors for overcoming MDR in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Figueroa-González
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, 04510, DF, Mexico
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Cornelison AM, Kantarjian H, Cortes J, Jabbour E. Outcome of treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia with second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors after imatinib failure. CLINICAL LYMPHOMA, MYELOMA & LEUKEMIA 2011; 11 Suppl 1:S101-10. [PMID: 22035738 PMCID: PMC4428283 DOI: 10.1016/j.clml.2011.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2010] [Revised: 08/24/2010] [Accepted: 08/27/2010] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Although imatinib revolutionized the management of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), recent data indicate a transformation in the treatment approach likely in the near future. For patients whose CML does not respond to standard-dose imatinib therapy, increasing the imatinib dose is a second-line option. However, high-dose imatinib is not an appropriate approach for patients experiencing drug toxicity, and there remain questions concerning the durability of responses achieved with this strategy. Alternative second-line options include the newer tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) such as dasatinib and nilotinib. A substantial amount of long-term data for these agents is available. Although both are potent and specific BCR-ABL TKIs, dasatinib and nilotinib exhibit unique pharmacological profiles and response patterns relative to different patient characteristics, such as disease stage and BCR-ABL mutational status. The superiority of second-generation TKIs over imatinib in newly diagnosed disease has been recognized as well. They induce high and rapid rates of cytogenetic and molecular response, with less progression to advanced forms of disease in comparison with imatinib. Several investigational agents specific for those patients with the T315I mutation remain under evaluation. The future of CML therapy may include early use of these potent agents to help more patients achieve molecular remission and potentially be a path to a CML cure.
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MESH Headings
- Antineoplastic Agents/therapeutic use
- Benzamides
- Clinical Trials as Topic
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm
- Humans
- Imatinib Mesylate
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/drug therapy
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/enzymology
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/metabolism
- Piperazines/therapeutic use
- Protein Kinase Inhibitors/therapeutic use
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/metabolism
- Pyrimidines/therapeutic use
- Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic
- Treatment Outcome
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Affiliation(s)
- A Megan Cornelison
- Department of Leukemia, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Chen SQ, Ding F, Liu FM. Investigation on the Ring-Opening Reactions of 3-(1H-1,2,4-Triazol-1-yl)1,5-benzothiazepines with Arylonitrile Oxides. PHOSPHORUS SULFUR 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/10426507.2010.509290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Qin Chen
- a College of Materials and Chemical Engineering , Hangzhou Normal University , Hangzhou , P.R. China
| | - Fei Ding
- b Technology Center of Juhua Group , Quzhou , P.R. China
| | - Fang-Ming Liu
- a College of Materials and Chemical Engineering , Hangzhou Normal University , Hangzhou , P.R. China
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Broccatelli F, Carosati E, Neri A, Frosini M, Goracci L, Oprea TI, Cruciani G. A novel approach for predicting P-glycoprotein (ABCB1) inhibition using molecular interaction fields. J Med Chem 2011; 54:1740-51. [PMID: 21341745 DOI: 10.1021/jm101421d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
P-glycoprotein (Pgp or ABCB1) is an ABC transporter protein involved in intestinal absorption, drug metabolism, and brain penetration, and its inhibition can seriously alter a drug's bioavailability and safety. In addition, inhibitors of Pgp can be used to overcome multidrug resistance. Given this dual purpose, reliable in silico procedures to predict Pgp inhibition are of great interest. A large and accurate literature collection yielded more than 1200 structures; a model was then constructed using various molecular interaction field-based technologies, considering pharmacophoric features and those physicochemical properties related to membrane partitioning. High accuracy was demonstrated internally with two different validation sets and, moreover, using a number of molecules, for which Pgp inhibition was not experimentally available but was evaluated in-house. All of the validations confirmed the robustness of the model and its suitability to help medicinal chemists in drug discovery. The information derived from the model was rationalized as a pharmacophore for competitive Pgp inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Broccatelli
- Laboratory of Chemometrics, Department of Chemistry, University of Perugia, Via Elce di Sotto 10, I-06123 Perugia, Italy
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Fodor L, Csomós P, Holczbauer T, Kálmán A, Csámpai A, Sohár P. Expected and unexpected reactions of 1,3-benzothiazine derivatives, I. Ring transformation of β-lactam-condensed 1,3-benzothiazines into 4,5-dihydro-1,4-benzothiazepines and indolo-1,4-benzothiazepines. Tetrahedron Lett 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2010.10.160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Abstract
Although only 5000 new cases of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) were seen in the United States in 2009, this neoplasm continues to make scientific headlines year-after-year. Advances in understanding the molecular pathogenesis coupled with exciting developments in both drug design and development, targeting the initiating tyrosine kinase, have kept CML in the scientific limelight for more than a decade. Indeed, imatinib, a small-molecule inhibitor of the leukemia-initiating Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase, has quickly become the therapeutic standard for newly diagnosed chronic phase-CML (CP-CML) patients. Yet, nearly one-third of patients will still have an inferior response to imatinib, either failing to respond to primary therapy or demonstrating progression after an initial response. Significant efforts geared toward understanding the molecular mechanisms of imatinib resistance have yielded valuable insights into the cellular biology of drug trafficking, enzyme structure and function, and the rational design of novel small molecule enzyme inhibitors. Indeed, new classes of kinase inhibitors have recently been investigated in imatinib-resistant CML. Understanding the pathogenesis of tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance and the molecular rationale for the development of second and now third generation therapies for patients with CML will be keys to further disease control over the next 10 years.
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Zhang L, Wang J, Zhao L, Meng Q, Wang Q. Analysis of chemoresistance in lung cancer with a simple microfluidic device. Electrophoresis 2010; 31:3763-70. [PMID: 20949633 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201000265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2010] [Revised: 05/12/2010] [Accepted: 05/25/2010] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Microchip-based systems have been developed rapidly due to their desirable advantages over conventional platforms. Higher level system integration and complex microdevices are emerging to satisfy the demand for high-throughput and large-scale applications. However, most of the devices need to be fabricated with complicated microvalves and micropumps, which, to some extent, limit the use of the novel technique. In this study, a simple microdevice was developed to perform chemotherapy resistance analysis in lung cancer cell line SPCA1. This device includes a PDMS chip for which a simple external small clip served as a microvalve to control the fluid flow so that the parallel control experiment could be carried out simultaneously, and a syringe pump, which supplied the cells with fresh medium mimicking the microenvironment in vivo. Cell culture, detection of drug resistance related protein P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and glutathione S-transferase-π (GST-π) and cell viability after VP-16 treatment on experimental (pretreated with corresponding inhibitors) and control groups were achieved. The results demonstrated that the cells could grow and spread well for at least 3 days. The expression of P-gp and GST-π was obviously downregulated by corresponding inhibitors. The percentage of apoptotic cells for P-gp inhibition group increased 2.9-fold compared with that of control group (23.7 ± 2.6 versus 8.1 ± 3.0%, p<0.05), while for GST-π inhibition, there was no obvious distinction between the experimental and control group. The simple microdevice is capable of integrating parallel operations involving cell culture and functional analysis, offering an easy and flexible platform for a stable long-term cell culture and comparison research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lichuan Zhang
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Affiliated Zhongshan Hospital of Dalian University, Dalian, PR China
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16
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Zhao L, Wang Z, Fan S, Meng Q, Li B, Shao S, Wang Q. Chemotherapy resistance research of lung cancer based on micro-fluidic chip system with flow medium. Biomed Microdevices 2010; 12:325-32. [PMID: 20066497 DOI: 10.1007/s10544-009-9388-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Micro total analysis systems (-TAS) or labs-on-achip, have been spreading rapidly due to their desirable characteristics, including reductions in reagent consumption, space requirements and analysis time. This work aimed at establishing an integrated microfluidic system which can supply the cells with fresh medium of oxygen and nutrition continuously at a control flow rate mimicking the microenvironment in vivo. Human non-small cell lung cancer cell line SPCA1 was seeded in a microchip supplied with fresh medium at a constant rate of 15 mm/24 h controlled by a pump. The expression of P-gp for verapamil-pretreated or non-pretreated cells was assayed with immunofluorescence. Both groups cells were exposed to anticancer drug VP-16 at 30 microM for 6 h before the apoptosis analysis online. The results indicated that the cells could grow and spread well for 4 days in the microfluidic system successively furnished with fresh medium. Immunofluorescence assay showed that the intensity of the fluorescence for the verapamil-pretreated cells was obvious weak compared with that of nonpretreated cells. Apoptosis analysis demonstrated that the percentage of apoptotic cells for verapamil-pretreated group increased around twofold compared with that of nonverapamil pretreated group (26.5+/-2.5% versus 10.9+/- 0.85%, p<0.05), showing a similar results as by flow cytometry analysis. All these indicate that P-gp plays an important role in the resistance to VP-16 in SPCA1, the microfluidic system provides a suitable environment for cells survival and is valuable in long time cell culture and bioassays mimicking the microenvironment in vivo and deserved to be studied further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Zhao
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, the Second Hospital affiliated to Dalian Medical University & Liaoning Provence Key Lab of Proteomics, 467# Zhongshan road, Dalian 116023, China
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Sierra JR, Cepero V, Giordano S. Molecular mechanisms of acquired resistance to tyrosine kinase targeted therapy. Mol Cancer 2010; 9:75. [PMID: 20385023 PMCID: PMC2864216 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-9-75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2009] [Accepted: 04/12/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, tyrosine kinases (TKs) have been recognized as central players and regulators of cancer cell proliferation, apoptosis, and angiogenesis, and are therefore considered suitable potential targets for anti-cancer therapies. Several strategies for targeting TKs have been developed, the most successful being monoclonal antibodies and small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors. However, increasing evidence of acquired resistance to these drugs has been documented, and extensive preclinical studies are ongoing to try to understand the molecular mechanisms by which cancer cells are able to bypass their inhibitory activity.This review intends to present the most recently identified molecular mechanisms that mediate acquired resistance to tyrosine kinase inhibitors, identified through the use of in vitro models or the analysis of patient samples. The knowledge obtained from these studies will help to design better therapies that prevent and overcome resistance to treatment in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rafael Sierra
- Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment, University of Torino Medical School, 10060 Candiolo (Torino), Italy
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18
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Kong X, Ge H, Chen L, Liu Z, Yin Z, Li P, Li M. Gamma-linolenic acid modulates the response of multidrug-resistant K562 leukemic cells to anticancer drugs. Toxicol In Vitro 2009; 23:634-9. [PMID: 19268700 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2009.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2008] [Revised: 12/28/2008] [Accepted: 02/22/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) is known to have selective tumoricidal action. It is also reported that GLA may increase the cytotoxic activity of cancer chemotherapeutic agents in some cancer cells. The present study examined whether GLA pretreatment could modulate the response of multidrug-resistant K562/ADM leukemic cells to anticancer drugs. The cell viability assay results showed that GLA at 10 microg/ml enhanced cell growth inhibition induced by the MDR-type drugs doxorubicin, etoposide and vincristine, but could not enhance or even attenuated cell growth inhibition induced by the non-MDR-type drug cisplatin, mitomycin and fluorouracil in K562/ADM cells. Further flow cytometry results showed that GLA decreased the expression of P-glycoprotein, enhanced the accumulation of doxorubicin and rhodamine 123 in K562/ADM cells and inhibited the efflux of rhodamine 123 from K562/ADM cells, lowered the efflux rate. These results suggest that GLA could modulate the response to anti-cancer agents in P-gp overexpressing multidrug-resistant cells, and the mechanism may be by decreasing the P-gp expression and inhibiting P-gp function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuqin Kong
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, PR China
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19
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Bixby D, Talpaz M. Mechanisms of resistance to tyrosine kinase inhibitors in chronic myeloid leukemia and recent therapeutic strategies to overcome resistance. HEMATOLOGY. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEMATOLOGY. EDUCATION PROGRAM 2009; 2009:461-476. [PMID: 20008232 DOI: 10.1182/asheducation-2009.1.461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Given its relative rarity, it may at first seem surprising that chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) has garnered so much attention over the last decade. Yet, the advances in molecular pathogenesis that have been derived from studying this leukemia have clearly benefited all of oncology. Moreover, the strides in drug design and development that have also ensued around CML have given rise to what others have called a molecular revolution in cancer therapy. While a majority of patients with chronic phase CML (CP-CML) have an excellent durable response to imatinib (Gleevec, Novartis, Basel, Switzerland), a clear minority will unfortunately have signs of primary or secondary resistance to therapy. Significant efforts geared toward understanding the molecular mechanisms of imatinib resistance have yielded valuable insights into the biology of drug trafficking into and out of cells, epigenetic control of cellular processes, alterations in enzymatic structures, and the rational structural-based design of small molecule enzyme inhibitors. This review will describe the efforts at understanding the pathogenesis of imatinib resistance and the molecular rationale for the development of second- and now third-generation therapies for patients with CML.
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MESH Headings
- Antineoplastic Agents/administration & dosage
- Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacokinetics
- Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology
- Antineoplastic Agents/therapeutic use
- Benzamides
- Biological Transport/drug effects
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Drug Delivery Systems
- Drug Design
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm/drug effects
- Drugs, Investigational/pharmacology
- Drugs, Investigational/therapeutic use
- Epigenesis, Genetic
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/antagonists & inhibitors
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/genetics
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/physiology
- Humans
- Imatinib Mesylate
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/drug therapy
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/enzymology
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/genetics
- Neoplasm Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Neoplasm Proteins/genetics
- Neoplasm Proteins/physiology
- Piperazines/administration & dosage
- Piperazines/pharmacokinetics
- Piperazines/pharmacology
- Piperazines/therapeutic use
- Protein Kinase Inhibitors/administration & dosage
- Protein Kinase Inhibitors/classification
- Protein Kinase Inhibitors/pharmacokinetics
- Protein Kinase Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Protein Kinase Inhibitors/therapeutic use
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Pyrimidines/administration & dosage
- Pyrimidines/pharmacokinetics
- Pyrimidines/pharmacology
- Pyrimidines/therapeutic use
- Salvage Therapy
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Signal Transduction/physiology
- Structure-Activity Relationship
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale Bixby
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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20
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El Rady EA. A Facile and Simple Synthesis of Some New Pyridobenzothiazepine and Pyrimidobenzothiazepine Derivatives. PHOSPHORUS SULFUR 2006. [DOI: 10.1080/10426500600754802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eman A. El Rady
- a Chemistry Department , South Valley University , Aswan , Egypt
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21
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Zhu HJ, Wang JS, Guo QL, Jiang Y, Liu GQ. Reversal of P-glycoprotein mediated multidrug resistance in K562 cell line by a novel synthetic calmodulin inhibitor, E6. Biol Pharm Bull 2006; 28:1974-8. [PMID: 16204958 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.28.1974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The overexpression of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is associated with multidrug resistance (MDR) of tumor cells to a number of chemotherapeutic drugs. P-gp inhibitors have been shown to effectively reverse P-gp-mediated MDR in both in vitro and in vivo. Our previous studies demonstrated that E6, a novel synthetic calmodulin inhibitor, exhibited potent inhibitory effect on P-gp in rat brain microvessel endothelial cells (RBMECs). In the present study, the effect of E6 on MDR in a K562 MDR cell line (K562/DOX) highly expressing P-gp was studied and compared with that of a conventional P-gp inhibitor, verapamil (VER). E6 at concentrations of 1, 3, 10, 30 microM reduced the IC50 value of doxorubicin in K562/DOX cells from 79.19 microM to 35.18, 21.86, 6.31 and 1.97 microM, respectively. However, the IC50 value of doxorubicin in K562 sensitive subline was not significantly changed by E6. Using a DNA content analysis and an annexin V binding assay, the effects of E6 on doxorubicin-induced apoptosis were also examined. The results indicated that E6 effectively reversed the resistance to doxorubicin-induced apoptosis in K562/DOX cells. In addition, co-treatment of E6 and doxorubicin resulted in a remarkably G2/M blocking effect in K562/DOX cells. Furthermore, the treatment of K562/DOX cells with 10 microM E6 led to increased intracellular accumulation and decreased efflux of doxorubicin. Overall, the pharmacological effects of E6 on P-gp-mediated MDR is much stronger than that of positive control drug VER. These results suggested that E6 is a novel and potent MDR reversal agent and may be a potential adjunctive agent for tumor chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Jie Zhu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, USA.
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22
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Théou N, Gil S, Devocelle A, Julié C, Lavergne-Slove A, Beauchet A, Callard P, Farinotti R, Le Cesne A, Lemoine A, Faivre-Bonhomme L, Emile JF. Multidrug Resistance Proteins in Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors: Site-Dependent Expression and Initial Response to Imatinib. Clin Cancer Res 2005; 11:7593-8. [PMID: 16278376 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-05-0710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) are the most frequent mesenchymal tumors of the digestive tract and respond poorly to chemotherapy. A tyrosine kinase inhibitor treatment, imatinib mesylate, was recently shown to have antitumor effects in metastatic patients. However, this drug is a substrate for multidrug resistance (MDR) proteins. Therefore, we investigated the expression of ABCB1 (P-glycoprotein), ABCC1 (MRP1), and ABCG2 (BCRP) by Western blotting in 21 GISTs and 3 leiomyosarcomas. All the GISTs were positive for either ABCB1 (86% of cases) or ABCC1 expression (62%), but negative for ABCG2. ABCB1 was expressed in all gastric GISTs, but in only 67% of nongastric GISTs. By contrast, ABCC1 expression was more common in nongastric tumors (78% versus 42%). The levels of these MDR proteins in gastric GISTs were higher for ABCB1 (P = 0.007) and lower for ABCC1 (P = 0.004) compared with nongastric GISTs. We found no correlation between MDR protein expression and the risk assessment. None of the six patients treated with imatinib was resistant, although all were positive for at least one MDR protein. These results confirm that gastric and nongastric GISTs have different biological characteristics and suggest that MDR proteins do not impair the initial response of the tumor to imatinib.
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23
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Zong Y, Zhou S, Sorrentino BP. Loss of P-glycoprotein expression in hematopoietic stem cells does not improve responses to imatinib in a murine model of chronic myelogenous leukemia. Leukemia 2005; 19:1590-6. [PMID: 16001089 DOI: 10.1038/sj.leu.2403853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Selective inhibition of the BCR/ABL tyrosine kinase by imatinib has become a first-line therapy for chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). However, BCR/ABL-positive progenitors often persist despite treatment, and relapse associated with resistance to imatinib has been described in many patients with advanced disease. Drug efflux by P-glycoprotein (P-gp), as well as point mutations in BCR/ABL oncoprotein, has been implicated in the mechanism of resistance to imatinib. In this study, we established a murine transplantation model of CML-like myeloproliferative disease using Mdr1a/1b-null mice and analyzed the effects of loss of P-gp on resistance to imatinib. We found that mice transplanted with Mdr1a/1b-null bone marrow (BM) that had been transduced with a BCR/ABL retroviral vector displayed similar responses to imatinib, compared with those transplanted with BCR/ABL-transduced wild-type BM. In the absence of P-gp, the incidence and latency of disease in secondary recipients was not changed in imatinib-treated mice, relative to wild-type controls. Furthermore, K562 cells engineered to overexpress P-gp remained sensitive to imatinib-induced growth inhibition and cell death. Together, our findings suggest that P-gp expression in hematopoietic stem cells does not significantly contribute to imatinib resistance in CML.
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MESH Headings
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/biosynthesis
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/genetics
- Animals
- Benzamides
- Bone Marrow Transplantation/methods
- Cell Survival/drug effects
- Cell Transplantation
- Disease Models, Animal
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm
- Hematopoietic Stem Cells/metabolism
- Humans
- Imatinib Mesylate
- K562 Cells
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/drug therapy
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Piperazines/pharmacology
- Pyrimidines/pharmacology
- Survival Analysis
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Zong
- Division of Experimental Hematology, Department of Hematology-Oncology, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
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24
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Lepper ER, Nooter K, Verweij J, Acharya MR, Figg WD, Sparreboom A. Mechanisms of resistance to anticancer drugs: the role of the polymorphic ABC transporters ABCB1 and ABCG2. Pharmacogenomics 2005; 6:115-38. [PMID: 15882131 DOI: 10.1517/14622416.6.2.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
ATP-binding cassette (ABC) genes play a role in the resistance of malignant cells to anticancer agents. The ABC gene products, including ABCB1 (P-glycoprotein) and ABCG2 (breast cancer-resistance protein [BCRP], mitoxantrone-resistance protein [MXR], or ABC transporter in placenta [ABCP]), are also known to influence oral absorption and disposition of a wide variety of drugs. As a result, the expression levels of these proteins in humans have important consequences for an individual’s susceptibility to certain drug-induced side effects, interactions, and treatment efficacy. Naturally occurring variants in ABC transporter genes have been identified that might affect the function and expression of the protein. This review focuses on recent advances in the pharmacogenetics of the ABC transporters ABCB1 and ABCG2, and discusses potential implications of genetic variants for the chemotherapeutic treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin R Lepper
- National Cancer Institute, Clinical Pharmacology Research Core, Building 10, Room 5A01, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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25
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Zloh M, Kaatz GW, Gibbons S. Inhibitors of multidrug resistance (MDR) have affinity for MDR substrates. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2004; 14:881-5. [PMID: 15012986 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2003.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2003] [Revised: 11/12/2003] [Accepted: 12/03/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Multidrug-resistance (MDR) occurs in many bacterial species and tumour cells. MDR functions by membrane proteins which export drugs from cells, resulting in a low ineffective concentration of the drug. We have shown by molecular modelling that inhibitors of MDR have affinity for substrates of MDR transporters. This affinity may facilitate drug entry into cells and a large inhibitor-drug complex may be a poorer substrate for the MDR mechanism. This complex would effectively 'cloak' the drug rendering it unavailable for efflux.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mire Zloh
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry, The School of Pharmacy, University of London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK.
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26
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Ferrao PT, Frost MJ, Siah SP, Ashman LK. Overexpression of P-glycoprotein in K562 cells does not confer resistance to the growth inhibitory effects of imatinib (STI571) in vitro. Blood 2003; 102:4499-503. [PMID: 12881321 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2003-01-0083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevated expression of multidrug efflux pumps such as P-glycoprotein (Pgp) have been associated with resistance to cytotoxic drugs used in the treatment of leukemias and other cancers. Imatinib mesylate (STI-571 or Gleevec) is a potent inhibitor of the BCR/ABL and c-KIT tyrosine kinases. It has displayed considerable efficacy in treatment of patients with Philadelphia-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia and chronic myelogenous leukemia and those with gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs). However, recently imatinib-resistant relapse has emerged as a significant problem. Although a major cause of resistance appears to be point mutation in the kinase domain of the target enzyme, the potential contribution of elevated multidrug efflux activity has not been systematically evaluated. The imatinib-sensitive human leukemic cell line K562, which is dependent on the activity of BCR/ABL for survival and growth, provides a convenient system for evaluating modulation of drug activity. By expressing Pgp at high levels in these cells, we have demonstrated that this pump provides minimal protection against cell growth inhibition and apoptosis induced by imatinib. In contrast, overexpression of Bcl-xL, which blocks apoptosis, resulted in partial protection against the drug. We conclude that Pgp up-regulation is not likely to be a significant contributor to imatinib resistance.
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MESH Headings
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/biosynthesis
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/genetics
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/physiology
- Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology
- Apoptosis/drug effects
- Benzamides
- Biological Transport
- Daunorubicin/pharmacology
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm
- Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/antagonists & inhibitors
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/physiology
- Gene Expression Regulation, Leukemic
- Humans
- Imatinib Mesylate
- K562 Cells/drug effects
- K562 Cells/metabolism
- Neoplasm Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Neoplasm Proteins/biosynthesis
- Neoplasm Proteins/genetics
- Neoplasm Proteins/physiology
- Piperazines/pharmacology
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2/physiology
- Pyrimidines/pharmacology
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/physiology
- Transduction, Genetic
- bcl-X Protein
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Affiliation(s)
- Petranel T Ferrao
- Rm 511, Medical Sciences Bldg, University of Newcastle, University Dr, Callaghan, New South Wales 2308, Australia.
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