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Wang P, Jia Y, Han Y, Wang W, Zhu Y, Xu J, Guan C, Ying J, Deng S, Wang J, Zhang X, Chen M, Cheng C, Song H. Eimeria acervulina Microneme Protein 3 Inhibits Apoptosis of the Chicken Duodenal Epithelial Cell by Targeting the Casitas B-Lineage Lymphoma Protein. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:636809. [PMID: 34141730 PMCID: PMC8204691 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.636809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Eimeria acervulina (E. acervulina) causes coccidiosis in poultry which persists as economic pain worldwide. Most damage to the intestinal mucosa results from apoptosis of the infected intestinal epithelial cells. The Microneme protein 3 (MIC3) protein is a key virulence factor in some parasites involved in host cell apoptosis inhibition. Here, we studied whether and how MIC3 affects the apoptosis in E. acervulina infected chicken duodenal epithelial cells. Through flow cytometry (FCM), we found that the presence of merozoites and the overexpression of MIC3 significantly decreased apoptosis and the activity of caspase-3 in chicken duodenal epithelial cells at 4, 6, and 8 h post merozoite infection (P < 0.01). Silencing the Casitas B-lineage lymphoma (CBL) protein, a host receptor for MIC3 with shRNA was shown to promote apoptosis in the chicken duodenal epithelial cells. The early apoptotic rate of host cells in the lentiviral-MIC3 group was significantly lower than that in the lentiviral-MIC3 + shRNA CBL group at 4 h after MIC3 expression (P < 0.01), and it was moderately decreased in the lentiviral-MIC3 + shRNA CBL group compared with that in the shRNA CBL group. Our data indicated that MIC3 inhibited early apoptosis of E. acervulina infected chicken duodenal epithelial cells by targeting host receptor-CBL protein. These findings unveiled one of the mechanisms of how intracellular parasites affect the apoptosis of infected host cells, which provided a deeper understanding of their pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yukun Jia
- Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yue Han
- Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Weirong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yiran Zhu
- Jixian Honors College, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiali Xu
- Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chiyu Guan
- Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jinpeng Ying
- Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Simin Deng
- Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xian Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Mianmian Chen
- Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Changyong Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Houhui Song
- Key Laboratory of Applied Technology on Green-Eco Healthy Animal Husbandry of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Animal Health Inspection and Internet Technology, College of Animal Science and Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China
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Cooper C, Andrew Thompson RC, Rigby P, Buckley A, Peacock C, Clode PL. The marsupial trypanosome Trypanosoma copemani is not an obligate intracellular parasite, although it adversely affects cell health. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:521. [PMID: 30236162 PMCID: PMC6148770 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3092-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trypanosoma cruzi invades and replicates inside mammalian cells, which can lead to chronic Chagas disease in humans. Trypanosoma copemani infects Australian marsupials and recent investigations indicate it may be able to invade mammalian cells in vitro, similar to T. cruzi. Here, T. cruzi 10R26 strain (TcIIa) and two strains of T. copemani [genotype 1 (G1) and genotype 2 (G2)] were incubated with marsupial cells in vitro. Live-cell time-lapse and fluorescent microscopy, combined with high-resolution microscopy (transmission and scanning electron microscopy) were used to investigate surface interactions between parasites and mammalian cells. RESULTS The number of parasites invading cells was significantly higher in T. cruzi compared to either genotype of T. copemani, between which there was no significant difference. While capable of cellular invasion, T. copemani did not multiply in host cells in vitro as there was no increase in intracellular amastigotes over time and no release of new trypomastigotes from host cells, as observed in T. cruzi. Exposure of host cells to G2 trypomastigotes resulted in increased host cell membrane permeability within 24 h of infection, and host cell death/blebbing was also observed. G2 parasites also became embedded in the host cell membrane. CONCLUSIONS Trypanosoma copemani is unlikely to have an obligate intracellular life-cycle like T. cruzi. However, T. copemani adversely affects cell health in vitro and should be investigated in vivo in infected host tissues to better understand this host-parasite relationship. Future research should focus on increasing understanding of the T. copemani life history and the genetic, physiological and ecological differences between different genotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal Cooper
- Centre for Microscopy, Characterisation and Analysis, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, 6009, Australia. .,Central Analytical Research Facility, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, 4000, Australia.
| | - R C Andrew Thompson
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, 6150, Australia
| | - Paul Rigby
- Centre for Microscopy, Characterisation and Analysis, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, 6009, Australia
| | - Alysia Buckley
- Centre for Microscopy, Characterisation and Analysis, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, 6009, Australia
| | - Christopher Peacock
- Marshall Centre, School of Pathology and Laboratory and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, 6009, Australia
| | - Peta L Clode
- Centre for Microscopy, Characterisation and Analysis, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, 6009, Australia.,UWA School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, 6009, Australia
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Urquiza JM, Burgos JM, Ojeda DS, Pascuale CA, Leguizamón MS, Quarleri JF. Astrocyte Apoptosis and HIV Replication Are Modulated in Host Cells Coinfected with Trypanosoma cruzi. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:345. [PMID: 28824880 PMCID: PMC5539089 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiological agent of Chagas disease. In immunosuppressed individuals, as it occurs in the coinfection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the central nervous system may be affected. In this regard, reactivation of Chagas disease is severe and often lethal, and it accounts for meningoencephalitis. Astrocytes play a crucial role in the environment maintenance of healthy neurons; however, they can host HIV and T. cruzi. In this report, human astrocytes were infected in vitro with both genetically modified-pathogens to express alternative fluorophore. As evidenced by fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry, HIV and T. cruzi coexist in the same astrocyte, likely favoring reciprocal interactions. In this context, lower rates of cell death were observed in both T. cruzi monoinfected-astrocytes and HIV-T. cruzi coinfection in comparison with those infected only with HIV. The level of HIV replication is significantly diminished under T. cruzi coinfection, but without affecting the infectivity of the HIV progeny. This interference with viral replication appears to be related to the T. cruzi multiplication rate or its increased intracellular presence but does not require their intracellular cohabitation or infected cell-to-cell contact. Among several Th1/Th2/Th17 profile-related cytokines, only IL-6 was overexpressed in HIV-T. cruzi coinfection exhibiting its cytoprotective role. This study demonstrates that T. cruzi and HIV are able to coinfect astrocytes thus altering viral replication and apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier M Urquiza
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasBuenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasBuenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Juan M Burgos
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasBuenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, Universidad Nacional de San Martín, San Martín, Argentina Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasBuenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Diego S Ojeda
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasBuenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasBuenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Carla A Pascuale
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasBuenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, Universidad Nacional de San Martín, San Martín, Argentina Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasBuenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M Susana Leguizamón
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasBuenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, Universidad Nacional de San Martín, San Martín, Argentina Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasBuenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Jorge F Quarleri
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasBuenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas en Retrovirus y Sida, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasBuenos Aires, Argentina
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Onizuka Y, Takahashi C, Uematsu A, Shinjo S, Seto E, Nakajima-Shimada J. Inhibition of autolysosome formation in host autophagy by Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Acta Trop 2017; 170:57-62. [PMID: 28232068 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2017.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Revised: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy has emerged as an essential component of the defense system against intracellular pathogens. We demonstrated that Trypanosoma cruzi, an intracellular protozoan parasite, was not eliminated by the host's autophagic machinery despite exposure to the host cell cytoplasm. Puncta of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3), an autophagy marker, and LC3-II, a lipidated form of LC3, were significantly increased after infection with T. cruzi, indicating that the parasite activated the early steps of host autophagy and induced autophagosome formation. However, autolysosomes were not observed in the infected cells. In addition, T. cruzi was not enwrapped by autophagosomes, suggesting that the parasite has mechanisms to allow it to evade autophagic capture. The results of this study indicate that host autophagy is incomplete following T. cruzi infection.
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Tumor suppressor p53 induces apoptosis of host lymphocytes experimentally infected by Leishmania major, by activation of Bax and caspase-3: a possible survival mechanism for the parasite. Parasitol Res 2017; 116:2159-2166. [PMID: 28560572 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-017-5517-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Apoptosis of infected host macrophages by Leishmania spp. is mainly addressed as one of the survival mechanisms of the parasite. However, there is no eligible data about whether tumor suppressor p53 could induce the apoptosis of host lymphocytes-treated Leishmania major via the mitochondrial intrinsic pathway. In this study, the amastigotes of L. major obtained from ten cutaneous leishmaniases (CL) patients were separately isolated and cultured in N.N.N and RPMI 1640 media. L. major was definitely confirmed by targeting Cyt b gene following sequencing. Subsequently, 2-3 × 106 lymphocytes obtained from ten healthy individuals were isolated and co-cultured with 1-2 × 106 L. major promastigotes. Following 6 h of exposure time, the enzymatic activity of caspase-3 was determined by fluorometric assay in each L. major-treated lymphocytes and cell control (only lymphocyte). The mRNA expressions of Bax, Bcl-2, p53, and caspase-3 genes were assessed by quantitative real-time-PCR analysis following 6 to 9 h of exposure times. The Bcl-2 mRNA expression in L. major-treated lymphocytes was 100-fold down-regulated relative to cell control. The mRNA expressions of p53 and caspase-3 were over-expressed 1.8- and 3.2-fold up-regulated relative to control lymphocytes, respectively. The Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and caspase-3 activity were higher than the control group (Pv <0.05). The current new findings indicate that the apoptotic effects of L. major-treated host lymphocytes dependent on p53 tumor suppressor via mitochondrial pathway may probably address as an auxiliary survival mechanism of L. major in CL patients. However, here is much work ahead to figure out the multiple functions played by apoptosis in the evasion of L. major.
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Host cytoplasmic processing bodies assembled by Trypanosoma cruzi during infection exert anti-parasitic activity. Parasitol Int 2015; 64:540-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2015.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Revised: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Apoptosis inducing effects of Kuding tea polyphenols in human buccal squamous cell carcinoma cell line BcaCD885. Nutrients 2014; 6:3084-100. [PMID: 25100434 PMCID: PMC4145296 DOI: 10.3390/nu6083084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Revised: 07/05/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Tea polyphenols are functional substances present in tea. Kuding tea as a traditional drink also contains these compounds. After 25, 50 and 100 μg/mL of Kuding tea polyphenol treatment for 48 h, cell proliferation of human buccal squamous cell carcinoma cell line BcaCD885 was inhibited, and the 100 μg/mL of Kuding tea polyphenol showed the highest inhibitory rate at 72.3%. Compared to the lower concentration, the 100 μg/mL of Kuding tea polyphenols significantly (p < 0.05) induced apoptosis as determined by flow cytometry analysis, the content of sub-G1 cancer cells was 32.7%. By RT-PCR and western blot assays, Kuding tea polyphenol significantly induced apoptosis in BcaCD885 cancer cells (p < 0.05) by upregulating caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9, Fas/FasL, Bax, p53, p21, E2F1, p73 and downregulating Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, HIAP-1, and HIAP-2 mRNA and protein expressions. Kuding tea polyphenols thus present apoptosis inducing effects in vitro.
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Annoura T, Makiuchi T, Sariego I, Aoki T, Nara T. SUMOylation of paraflagellar rod protein, PFR1, and its stage-specific localization in Trypanosoma cruzi. PLoS One 2012; 7:e37183. [PMID: 22615934 PMCID: PMC3355114 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2012] [Accepted: 04/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The flagellate protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi, is a causative agent of Chagas disease that is transmitted by reduviid bugs to humans. The parasite exists in multiple morphological forms in both vector and host, and cell differentiation in T. cruzi is tightly associated with stage-specific protein synthesis and degradation. However, the specific molecular mechanisms responsible for this coordinated cell differentiation are unclear. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS The SUMO conjugation system plays an important role in specific protein expression. In T. cruzi, a subset of SUMOlylated protein candidates and the nuclear localization of SUMO have been shown. Here, we examined the biological roles of SUMO in T. cruzi. Site-directed mutagenesis analysis of SUMO consensus motifs within T. cruzi SUMO using a bacterial SUMOylation system revealed that T. cruzi SUMO can polymerize. Indirect fluorescence analysis using T. cruzi SUMO-specific antibody showed the extra-nuclear localization of SUMO on the flagellum of epimastigote and metacyclic and bloodstream trypomastigote stages. In the short-flagellate intracellular amastigote, an extra-nuclear distribution of SUMO is associated with basement of the flagellum and becomes distributed along the flagellum as amastigote transforms into trypomastigote. We examined the flagellar target protein of SUMO and show that a paraflagellar rod protein, PFR1, is SUMOylated. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate that SUMOylation is associated with flagellar homeostasis throughout the parasite life cycle, which may play an important role in differentiation of T. cruzi.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Takeshi Nara
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Parasitology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail:
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A proteomics view of programmed cell death mechanisms during host–parasite interactions. J Proteomics 2011; 75:246-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2011.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2011] [Revised: 07/21/2011] [Accepted: 07/27/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Toll-like receptor-2 and interleukin-6 mediate cardiomyocyte protection from apoptosis during Trypanosoma cruzi murine infection. Med Microbiol Immunol 2011; 201:145-55. [DOI: 10.1007/s00430-011-0216-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Guillermo LVC, Pereira WF, De Meis J, Ribeiro-Gomes FL, Silva EM, Kroll-Palhares K, Takiya CM, Lopes MF. Targeting caspases in intracellular protozoan infections. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2010; 31:159-73. [PMID: 18785049 DOI: 10.1080/08923970802332164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Caspases are cysteine aspartases acting either as initiators (caspases 8, 9, and 10) or executioners (caspases 3, 6, and 7) to induce programmed cell death by apoptosis. Parasite infections by certain intracellular protozoans increase host cell life span by targeting caspase activation. Conversely, caspase activation, followed by apoptosis of lymphocytes and other cells, prevents effective immune responses to chronic parasite infection. Here we discuss how pharmacological inhibition of caspases might affect the immunity to protozoan infections, by either blocking or delaying apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Landi V C Guillermo
- Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Hashimoto M, Murata E, Aoki T. Secretory protein with RING finger domain (SPRING) specific to Trypanosoma cruzi is directed, as a ubiquitin ligase related protein, to the nucleus of host cells. Cell Microbiol 2009; 12:19-30. [PMID: 19702650 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2009.01375.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
While some intracellular bacterial and viral proteins secreted into host cell possess ubiquitin ligase (E3) activity for their profit, it has not been reported whether intracellular parasites secrete such molecules. We identified a gene that encodes a protein containing a secretory signal peptide and a RING finger domain in the intracellular protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi. This gene was specific to T. cruzi and was designated spring (secretory protein with RING finger domain). An in vitro ubiquitination assay showed that SPRING possessed E3 activity in a RING finger domain-dependent manner. SPRING could utilize human ubiquitin-activating enzymes (E2), UbcH5 and UbcH13. Although SPRING was found to be a secretory protein, the signal peptide-cleaved mature form of SPRING was localized in the nucleus of host cells, indicating that SPRING may function in the host cell nuclei. Yeast two-hybrid screening identified 52 putative SPRING interactors in HeLa cells, suggesting that SPRING affects the stability or function of a number of host proteins. Furthermore, a co-immunoprecipitation assay showed that breast cancer-associated protein 3 interacted with SPRING, as well as being ubiquitinated by SPRING in vitro. These findings are the first to show that this protozoan parasite secretes an ubiquitin ligase-related protein into host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muneaki Hashimoto
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Parasitology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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Chibucos MC, Collmer CW, Torto-Alalibo T, Gwinn-Giglio M, Lindeberg M, Li D, Tyler BM. Programmed cell death in host-symbiont associations, viewed through the Gene Ontology. BMC Microbiol 2009; 9 Suppl 1:S5. [PMID: 19278553 PMCID: PMC2654665 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-9-s1-s5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Manipulation of programmed cell death (PCD) is central to many host microbe interactions. Both plant and animal cells use PCD as a powerful weapon against biotrophic pathogens, including viruses, which draw their nutrition from living tissue. Thus, diverse biotrophic pathogens have evolved many mechanisms to suppress programmed cell death, and mutualistic and commensal microbes may employ similar mechanisms. Necrotrophic pathogens derive their nutrition from dead tissue, and many produce toxins specifically to trigger programmed cell death in their hosts. Hemibiotrophic pathogens manipulate PCD in a most exquisite way, suppressing PCD during the biotrophic phase and stimulating it during the necrotrophic phase. This mini-review will summarize the mechanisms that have evolved in diverse microbes and hosts for controlling PCD and the Gene Ontology terms developed by the Plant-Associated Microbe Gene Ontology (PAMGO) Consortium for describing those mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus C Chibucos
- Virginia Bioinformatics Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
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Murata E, Hashimoto M, Aoki T. Interaction between cFLIP and Itch, a ubiquitin ligase, is obstructed in Trypanosoma cruzi-infected human cells. Microbiol Immunol 2009; 52:539-43. [PMID: 19090833 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00073.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Death receptor-mediated host cell apoptosis, a defense strategy for elimination by the immune system of parasite-infected cells, is inhibited by Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas' disease. It has previously been reported by us that, in infected cells, T. cruzi upregulates and exploits cFLIP(L), a mammalian inhibitor of death receptor signaling. Here it is shown that ubiquitination of cFLIP(L,) leading to proteasomal degradation, is inhibited in parasite-infected cells. The extent of expression of Itch, a protein thought to be an ubiquitin ligase for cFLIP(L), was found to be equivalent in T. cruzi-infected and in uninfected cells. However, co-immunoprecipitation analysis showed that the interaction between cFLIP(L) and Itch is strongly inhibited in T. cruzi-infected cells. This unique parasite strategy, which has not been reported in any other pathogen-infected cells, may allow the host cell to accumulate cFLIP(L), eventually resulting in the inhibition of apoptosis of T. cruzi-infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eri Murata
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Parasitology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
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Abstract
Leishmania parasites invade host macrophages, causing infections that are either limited to skin or spread to internal organs. In this study, 3 species causing cutaneous leishmaniasis, L. major, L. aethiopica and L. tropica, were tested for their ability to interfere with apoptosis in host macrophages in 2 different lines of human monocyte-derived macrophages (cell lines THP-1 and U937) and the results confirmed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). All 3 species induced early apoptosis 48 h after infection (expression of phosphatidyl serine on the outer membrane). There were significant increases in the percentage of apoptotic cells both for U937 and PBMC following infection with each of the 3 species. Early apoptotic events were confirmed by mitochondrial membrane permeabilization detection and caspase activation 48 and 72 h after infection. Moreover, the percentage of infected THP-1 and U937 macrophages increased significantly (up to 100%) following treatment with an apoptosis inducer. Since phosphatidyl serine externalization on apoptosing cells acts as a signal for engulfment by macrophages, induction of apoptosis in the parasitized cells could actively participate in spreading the infection. In summary, parasite-containing apoptotic bodies with intact membranes could be released and phagocytosed by uninfected macrophages.
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Alves JB, Napimoga MH, Araujo MS, Silva GAB. Delay in maturation of the submandibular gland in Chagas disease correlates with lower DNA synthesis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2008; 103:585-90. [DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762008000600012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2008] [Accepted: 09/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Kolli BK, Kostal J, Zaborina O, Chakrabarty AM, Chang KP. Leishmania-released nucleoside diphosphate kinase prevents ATP-mediated cytolysis of macrophages. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2007; 158:163-75. [PMID: 18242727 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2007.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2007] [Revised: 12/10/2007] [Accepted: 12/13/2007] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Leishmania amazonensis was found to release nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NdK)-a stable enzyme capable of decreasing extracellular ATP. The release of this enzyme from Leishmania results in its progressive accumulation extracellularly as they replicate, peaking at the stationary phase in vitro. The released NdK is immunoprecipitable and constitutes approximately 40% of its total activities and proteins. The retention of a known cytosolic protein by wild type cells and a fluorescent protein by DsRed transfectants at stationary phase, which release NdK, indicates that this is a spontaneous event, independent of inadvertent cytolysis. Recombinant products of Leishmania NdK prepared were enzymatically and immunologically active. Both recombinant and native Leishmania NdK utilized ATP to produce expected nucleoside triphosphates in the presence of nucleoside diphosphates in excess. Both native and recombinant Leishmania NdK were also found to prevent ATP-induced cytolysis of J774 macrophages in vitro, as determined by assays for lactate dehydrogenase release from these cells and for their mitochondrial membrane potential changes. The results obtained thus suggest that Leishmania NdK not only serves its normal house-keeping and other important functions true to all cells, but also prevents ATP-mediated lysis of macrophages, thereby preserving the integrity of the host cells to the benefit of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bala Krishna Kolli
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, United States.
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18
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Shigihara T, Hashimoto M, Shindo N, Aoki T. Transcriptome profile of Trypanosoma cruzi-infected cells: simultaneous up- and down-regulation of proliferation inhibitors and promoters. Parasitol Res 2007; 102:715-22. [PMID: 18058129 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-007-0819-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2007] [Accepted: 11/21/2007] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
As Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, multiplies in the cytoplasm of nucleated host cells, infection with this parasite is highly likely to affect host cells. We performed an exhaustive transcriptome analysis of T. cruzi-infected HeLa cells using an oligonucleotide microarray containing probes for greater than 47,000 human gene transcripts. In comparison with uninfected cells, those infected with T. cruzi showed greater than threefold up-regulation of 41 genes and greater than threefold down-regulation of 23 genes. Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) of selected, differentially expressed genes confirmed the microarray data. Many of these up- and down-regulated genes were related to cellular proliferation, including seven up-regulated genes encoding proliferation inhibitors and three down-regulated genes encoding proliferation promoters, strongly suggesting that T. cruzi infection inhibits host cell proliferation, which may allow more time for T. cruzi to replicate and produce its intracellular nests. These findings provide new insight into the molecular mechanisms by which intracellular T. cruzi infection influences the host cell, leading to pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takako Shigihara
- Division of Molecular and Biochemical Research, Biomedical Research Center, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
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19
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Abstract
The modulation of apoptosis has emerged as an important weapon in the pathogenic arsenal of multiple intracellular protozoan parasites. Cryptosporidium parvum, Leishmania spp., Trypanosoma cruzi, Theileria spp., Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium spp. have all been shown to inhibit the apoptotic response of their host cell. While the pathogen mediators responsible for this modulation are unknown, the parasites are interacting with multiple apoptotic regulatory systems to render their host cell refractory to apoptosis during critical phases of intracellular infection, including parasite invasion, establishment and replication. Additionally, emerging evidence suggests that the parasite life cycle stage impacts the modulation of apoptosis and possibly parasite differentiation. Dissection of the host-pathogen interactions involved in modulating apoptosis reveals a dynamic and complex interaction that recent studies are beginning to unravel.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C Carmen
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
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20
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Kita K, Shiomi K, Omura S. Advances in drug discovery and biochemical studies. Trends Parasitol 2007; 23:223-9. [PMID: 17383234 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2007.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2007] [Revised: 02/26/2007] [Accepted: 03/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Japanese researchers continue to discover new means to combat parasites and make important contributions toward developing tools for global control of parasitic diseases. Streptomyces avermectinius, the source of ivermectin, was discovered in Japan in the early 1970s and renewed and vigorous screening of microbial metabolites in recent years has led to the discovery of new antiprotozoals and anthelminthics, including antimalarial drugs. Intensive studies of parasite energy metabolism, such as NADH-fumarate reductase systems and the synthetic pathways of nucleic acids and amino acids, also contribute to the identification of novel and unique drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyoshi Kita
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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21
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Petersen CA, Krumholz KA, Carmen J, Sinai AP, Burleigh BA. Trypanosoma cruzi infection and nuclear factor kappa B activation prevent apoptosis in cardiac cells. Infect Immun 2006; 74:1580-7. [PMID: 16495529 PMCID: PMC1418648 DOI: 10.1128/iai.74.3.1580-1587.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies of cardiac pathology and heart failure have implicated cardiomyocyte apoptosis as a critical determinant of disease. Recent evidence indicates that the intracellular protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, which causes heart disease in chronically infected individuals, impinges on host apoptotic pathways in a cell type-dependent manner. T. cruzi infection of isolated neuronal cells and cardiomyocytes protects against apoptotic cell death, whereas apoptosis is triggered in T cells in T. cruzi-infected animals. In this study, we demonstrate that the ability of T. cruzi to protect cardiac cells in vitro from apoptosis triggered by a combination of tumor necrosis factor alpha and serum reduction correlates with the presence of intracellular parasites and involves activation of host cell NF-kappaB. We further demonstrate that the apoptotic block diminishes activation of caspase 3. The ability of T. cruzi to prevent apoptosis of infected cardiomyocytes is likely to play an important role in establishment of persistent infection in the heart while minimizing potential damage and remodeling that is associated with cardiomyocyte apoptosis in cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine A Petersen
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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22
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Aoki MDP, Cano RC, Pellegrini AV, Tanos T, Guiñazú NL, Coso OA, Gea S. Different signaling pathways are involved in cardiomyocyte survival induced by a Trypanosoma cruzi glycoprotein. Microbes Infect 2006; 8:1723-31. [PMID: 16815723 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2006.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2005] [Revised: 12/29/2005] [Accepted: 02/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We have recently reported that Trypanosoma cruzi infection protects cardiomyocytes against apoptosis induced by growth factor deprivation. Cruzipain, a major parasite antigen, reproduced this survival effect by a Bcl-2-dependent mechanism. In this study, we have investigated the molecular mechanisms of cruzipain-induced cardiomyocyte protection. Neonatal BALB/c mouse cardiac myocytes were cultured under minimum serum conditions in the presence of cruzipain or T. cruzi (Tulahuen strain). Some cultures were pretreated with the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor Ly294002 or specific inhibitors of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family members such as the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK1) inhibitor PD098059, Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitor SP600125, p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580. Inhibition of PI3K and MEK1 but not JNK or p38 MAPK increased the apoptotic rate of cardiomyocytes treated with cruzipain. Phosphorylation of Akt, a major target of PI3K, and ERK1/2, MEK1-targets, was achieved at 15 min and 5 min, respectively. In parallel, these kinases were strongly phosphorylated by T. cruzi infection. In cultures treated with cruzipain, cleavage of caspase 3 was considerably diminished after serum starvation; Bcl-2 overexpression was inhibited by PD098059 but not by Ly294002, whereas Bad phosphorylation and Bcl-xL expression were increased and differentially modulated by both inhibitors. The results suggest that cruzipain exerts its anti-apoptotic property in cardiac myocytes at least by PI3K/Akt and MEK1/ERK1/2 signaling pathways. We further identified a differential modulation of Bcl-2 family members by these two signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Del Pilar Aoki
- CIBICI-CONICET, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina.
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23
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Iizumi K, Mikami Y, Hashimoto M, Nara T, Hara Y, Aoki T. Molecular cloning and characterization of ouabain-insensitive Na(+)-ATPase in the parasitic protist, Trypanosoma cruzi. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2006; 1758:738-46. [PMID: 16797482 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2006.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2005] [Revised: 04/12/2006] [Accepted: 04/25/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Maintaining low intracellular sodium concentrations is vital for almost all organisms. Na(+) efflux is generally governed by P-type ATPases, Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase in animals and Na(+)-ATPase, called ENA, in fungi and plants. Trypanosoma cruzi, which parasitizes mammalian cells, must undergo drastic adaptations to high Na(+) concentrations outside and low Na(+) concentrations inside host cells. However, T. cruzi Na(+) efflux pumps have not been identified. We report here the cloning and characterization of the gene encoding Na(+)-ATPase in T cruzi, which resembled fungal and plant ENAs, termed TcENA. TcENA was a plasma membrane protein expressed throughout the parasite life cycle. The transcription level of TcENA was higher in insect stage epimastigotes and blood stream trypomastigotes than in intracellular amastigotes, probably reflecting the high Na(+) concentration outside the host cells. Biochemical analysis of TcENA expressed heterologously in mammalian cells demonstrated, for the fist time, that the ATPase activity of TcENA is stimulated by both Na(+) and K(+) and is insensitive to ouabain, a specific inhibitor of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPases. Furthermore, epimastigotes overproducing TcENA showed increased tolerance to high Na(+) stress. Our findings suggest that TcENA acts as a sodium pump and provide insights into the regulation of ion homeostasis in the parasitic protist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoichi Iizumi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Parasitology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Hongo 2-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
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24
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van de Sand C, Horstmann S, Schmidt A, Sturm A, Bolte S, Krueger A, Lütgehetmann M, Pollok JM, Libert C, Heussler VT. The liver stage of Plasmodium berghei inhibits host cell apoptosis. Mol Microbiol 2006; 58:731-42. [PMID: 16238623 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04888.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium berghei is the causative agent of rodent malaria and is widely used as a model system to study the liver stage of Plasmodium parasites. The entry of P. berghei sporozoites into hepatocytes has extensively been studied, but little is known about parasite-host interaction during later developmental stages of the intracellular parasite. Growth of the parasite far beyond the normal size of the host cell is an important stress factor for the infected cell. Cell stress is known to trigger programmed cell death (apoptosis) and we examined several apoptotic markers in P. berghei-infected cells and compared their level of expression and their distribution to that of non-infected cells. As none of the apoptotic markers investigated were found altered in infected cells, we hypothesized that parasite infection might confer resistance to apoptosis of the host cell. Treatment with peroxide or serum deprivation induced apoptosis in non-infected HepG2 cells, whereas P. berghei-infected cells appeared protected, indicating that the parasite interferes indeed with the apoptotic machinery of the host cell. To prove the physiological relevance of these results, mice were infected with high numbers of P. berghei sporozoites and treated with tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha/D-galactosamine to induce massive liver apoptosis. Liver sections of these mice, stained for degraded DNA, confirmed that infected cells containing viable parasites were protected from programmed cell death. However, in non-treated control mice as well as in TNF-alpha-treated mice a small proportion of dead intracellular parasites with degraded DNA were detected. Most hepatocytes containing dead parasites provoked an infiltration of immunocompetent cells, indicating that these cells are no longer protected from cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia van de Sand
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Bernhard-Nocht-Str 74, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
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25
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Hashimoto M, Nakajima-Shimada J, Ishidoh K, Aoki T. Gene expression profiles in response to Fas stimulation in Trypanosoma cruzi-infected host cells. Int J Parasitol 2005; 35:1587-94. [PMID: 16185694 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2005] [Revised: 07/19/2005] [Accepted: 08/05/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
To determine the molecular mechanism by which apoptosis is inhibited in Trypanosoma cruzi-infected host cells, we used human cDNA apoptosis chips to compare the gene expression profiles in response with 'death ligands target' (Fas) stimulation in infected and uninfected cells. Of the 164 apoptosis-related genes examined, 20, including those encoding both pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins, were highly up-regulated in the infected group. Genes encoding caspases and apoptosis inhibitors were optimally expressed 10-30 min after induction of apoptosis, whereas genes involved in transcriptional regulation and cell proliferation were up-regulated after 2-24 h. These results suggest that host anti-apoptotic gene(s) may play a crucial role in the inhibition of Fas-mediated apoptosis in T. cruzi-infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muneaki Hashimoto
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Parasitology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, 2-1-1, Hongo, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
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26
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Hashimoto M, Nakajima-Shimada J, Aoki T. Trypanosoma cruzi posttranscriptionally up-regulates and exploits cellular FLIP for inhibition of death-inducing signal. Mol Biol Cell 2005; 16:3521-8. [PMID: 15917295 PMCID: PMC1182294 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e04-12-1051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracellular persistence of the protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi, is an aggravating cause of Chagas' disease, involving that the protozoan infection specifically inhibits death receptor-mediated apoptosis of host cells. Here we demonstrate that the parasite dramatically up-regulates cellular FLICE inhibitory protein (c-FLIP), the only known mammalian inhibitor specific for death receptor signaling, in infected cells by an unusual, posttranscriptional stabilization of the short-lived protein. We also show that c-FLIP is accumulated in T. cruzi-infected mouse heart muscle cells in vivo. Stimulation of death receptor Fas in infected cells induces recruitment of c-FLIP to block the procaspase-8 activation at the most upstream caspase cascade. c-FLIP knock-down with a small interfering RNA significantly restores Fas-mediated apoptosis in infected cells. Taken together, our findings indicate that T. cruzi posttranscriptionally up-regulates and exploits host c-FLIP for the inhibition of death-inducing signal, a mechanism that may allow parasites to persist in host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muneaki Hashimoto
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Parasitology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
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27
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Leirião P, Rodrigues CD, Albuquerque SS, Mota MM. Survival of protozoan intracellular parasites in host cells. EMBO Rep 2005; 5:1142-7. [PMID: 15577928 PMCID: PMC1299194 DOI: 10.1038/sj.embor.7400299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2004] [Accepted: 10/25/2004] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The most common human diseases are caused by pathogens. Several of these microorganisms have developed efficient ways in which to exploit host molecules, along with molecular pathways to ensure their survival, differentiation and replication in host cells. Although the contribution of the host cell to the development of many intracellular pathogens (particularly viruses and bacteria) has been unequivocally established, the study of host-cell requirements during the life cycle of protozoan parasites is still in its infancy. In this review, we aim to provide some insight into the manipulation of the host cell by parasites through discussing the hurdles that are faced by the latter during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Leirião
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal
| | | | - Sónia S. Albuquerque
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Maria M. Mota
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal
- Tel: +351 21 446 4517; Fax: +351 21 440 7970;
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28
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Chang JH, Ryang YS, Kim SK, Park JY. Trichomonas vaginalis-induced apoptosis in RAW264.7 cells is regulated through Bcl-xL, but not Bcl-2. Parasite Immunol 2004; 26:141-50. [PMID: 15279625 DOI: 10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00693.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine whether anti-apoptotic proteins of the Bcl-2 family such as Bcl-2 and Bcl-x(L), proteins that confer resistance to apoptotic death from some stimuli, block apoptotic cell death in RAW264.7 cells upon treatment with Trichomonas vaginalis. In this study, the expression level of Bcl-2 was unchanged throughout the course of apoptotic cell death, and overexpressed Bcl-2 did not prevent release of cytochrome c, the significant change of the membrane potential, activation of caspases, and PARP cleavage in T. vaginalis-treated RAW264.7 cells. On the other hand, Bcl-x(L)expression was decreased after T. vaginalis treatment accompanied with Bax activation. Furthermore, we showed that release of mitochondrial cytochrome c, cleavage of caspase-9 and PARP during apoptosis in T. vaginalis-treated RAW264.7 cells were considerably diminished by transfection with overexpressed Bcl-x(L), and overexpressed Bcl-x(L)could inhibit T. vaginalis-induced apoptosis in RAW264.7 cells. In addition, interestingly, pre-treatment with caspase inhibitors, Boc-D-FMK and Z-DEVD-FMK, significantly abolished T. vaginalis-induced down-regulation of Bcl-x(L), suggesting that caspase-3 may play a pivotal role in the process of apoptosis as well as the down-regulation of Bcl-x(L)by T. vaginalis. Therefore, these results suggest that T. vaginalis-induced apoptosis in RAW264.7 cells can occur via a Bcl-x(L)-dependent apoptotic mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- J-H Chang
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, College of Health Science, Yonsei University, Wonju, South Korea
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29
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Moore-Lai D, Rowland E. Microarray data demonstrate that Trypanosoma cruzi downregulates the expression of apoptotic genes in BALB/c fibroblasts. J Parasitol 2004; 90:893-5. [PMID: 15357096 DOI: 10.1645/ge-146r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasites have been shown to up- and downregulate host apoptosis, most likely facilitating their ability to successfully establish an infection in the host. It has been demonstrated that pathogens modulate well-established pathways, leading to cell death, including induction of the Fas-FasL system to promote apoptosis. In contrast, it has also been shown that in other instances a decrease in host cell apoptosis results after the upregulation of genes in the Bcl-2 family. The present study examined the ability of Trypanosoma cruzi to modulate expression of host cell genes of the TNFR1 apoptotic pathway. Using microarray technology, gene expression was compared between uninfected BALB/c fibroblasts and T. cruzi-infected BALB/c fibroblasts. After comparing expression patterns between uninfected and T. cruzi-infected BALB/c fibroblasts, it was concluded that genetic expression of genes in the TNFR1 apoptotic pathway is downregulated in T. cruzi-infected cells, indicating that in BALB/c fibroblasts the parasite decreases the expression of genes, leading to host cell apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Moore-Lai
- Ohio University, Department of Biomedical Sciences, 342 Irvine Hall, Athens, Ohio 45701, USA.
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30
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric R James
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical University of South Carolina, 171 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, SC 29425, USA.
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31
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Courret N, Lang T, Milon G, Antoine JC. Intradermal inoculations of low doses of Leishmania major and Leishmania amazonensis metacyclic promastigotes induce different immunoparasitic processes and status of protection in BALB/c mice. Int J Parasitol 2004; 33:1373-83. [PMID: 14527520 DOI: 10.1016/s0020-7519(03)00179-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In order to simulate the natural long term parasitisms which may occur in mammals infected with Leishmania, cutaneous leishmaniases due to Leishmania major or Leishmania amazonensis were induced using a model based on the inoculation of 10-1000 metacyclic promastigotes into the ear dermis of BALB/c mice. The final outcome of these parasitisms was dependent upon the number of inoculated parasites. Only some of the mice inoculated with ten parasites displayed cutaneous lesions, whereas most mice infected with 100 metacyclics and all mice infected with 1000 metacyclics developed progressive lesions. We found, using the latter experimental conditions, that the onset of the pathology was associated with: (a) parasite multiplication in the inoculation site and the draining lymph node correlating with an increase of the lymph node cell number, especially in L. major-infected mice; and (b) the detection of lymph node cells, at least in part CD4(+) T lymphocytes, able to produce high levels of interferon-gamma, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10 and IL-13. Thereafter, mice infected by L. major harboured few parasites in the ear and had a 100-fold reduction in lymph node parasite load between 23 and 40 weeks post-inoculation. In contrast, the parasite loads of L. amazonensis-infected mice remained stable in the ear and increased in nodes during the same period of time. Only L. major-infected mice that exhibited cutaneous lesions in the primary site were resistant to the re-inoculation of 1000 metacyclic promastigotes, whereas all L. amazonensis-primary infected mice remained susceptible to a second homologous challenge. These results are the first to document that a status of resistance to re-infection, referred to concomitant immunity, is coupled to the development of primary progressive lesions in L. major-infected BALB/c mice. Such a protective status is absent in L. amazonensis-infected BALB/c mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Courret
- Unité d'Immunophysiologie et Parasitisme Intracellulaire, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France.
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32
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HIROTA KENICHIRO, TSUBOUCHI AKIKO, NAKAJIMA-SHIMADA JUNKO, NARA TAKESHI, AOKI TAKASHI. INHIBITION OF TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI GROWTH IN MAMMALIAN CELLS BY NIMODIPINE, WITH LOW CYTOTOXICITY TO HOST CELLS. Trop Med Health 2004. [DOI: 10.2149/tmh.32.181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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33
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Lüder CG, Gross U, Lopes MF. Intracellular protozoan parasites and apoptosis: diverse strategies to modulate parasite-host interactions. Trends Parasitol 2001; 17:480-6. [PMID: 11587962 DOI: 10.1016/s1471-4922(01)02016-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Programmed cell death (apoptosis) is an important regulator of the host's response during infection with a variety of intracellular protozoan parasites. Parasitic pathogens have evolved diverse strategies to induce or inhibit host-cell apoptosis, thereby modulating the host's immune response, aiding dissemination within the host or facilitating intracellular survival. Here, we review the molecular and cell-biological mechanisms of the pathogen-induced modulation of host-cell apoptosis and its effects on the parasite-host interaction and the pathogenesis of parasitic diseases. We also discuss the previously unrecognized phenomenon of apoptotic cell death in (unicellular) protozoan parasites and its potential implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- C G Lüder
- Department Bacteriology, Georg August University of Göttingen, Kreuzbergring 57, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany.
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34
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Abstract
Protozoan parasites which reside inside a host cell avoid direct destruction by the immune system of the host. The infected cell, however, still has the capacity to counteract the invasive pathogen by initiating its own death, a process which is called programmed cell death or apoptosis. Apoptotic cells are recognised and phagocytosed by macrophages and the parasite is potentially eliminated together with the infected cell. This potent defence mechanism of the host cell puts strong selective pressure on the parasites which have, in turn, evolved strategies to modulate the apoptotic program of the host cell to their favour. Within the last decade, the existence of cellular signalling pathways which inhibit the apoptotic machinery has been demonstrated. It is not surprising that intracellular pathogens subvert these pathways to ensure their own survival in the infected cell. Molecular mechanisms which interfere with apoptotic pathways have been studied extensively for viruses and parasitic bacteria, but protozoan parasites have come into focus only recently. Intracellular protozoan parasites which have been reported to inhibit the apoptotic program of the host cell, are Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania sp., Theileria sp., Cryptosporidium parvum, and the microsporidian Nosema algerae. Although these parasites differ in their mechanism of host cell entry and in their final intracellular localisation, they might activate similar pathways in their host cells to inhibit apoptosis. In this respect, two families of molecules, which are known for their capacity to interrupt the apoptotic program, are currently discussed in the literature. First, the expression of heat shock proteins is often induced upon parasite infection and can directly interfere with molecules of the cellular death machinery. Secondly, a more indirect effect is attributed to the parasite-dependent activation of NF-kappaB, a transcription factor that regulates the transcription of anti-apoptotic molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- V T Heussler
- Molecular Pathology, Institute of Animal Pathology, University of Berne, Switzerland.
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35
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Chuenkova MV, Furnari FB, Cavenee WK, Pereira MA. Trypanosoma cruzi trans-sialidase: a potent and specific survival factor for human Schwann cells by means of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001; 98:9936-41. [PMID: 11481434 PMCID: PMC55556 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.161298398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients infected with Trypanosoma cruzi may remain asymptomatic for decades and show signs of neuroregeneration in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). In the absence of such neuroregeneration, patients may die in part by extensive neuronal destruction in the gastrointestinal tract. Thus, T. cruzi may, despite their invasion of the PNS, directly prevent cell death to keep nerve destruction in check. Indeed, T. cruzi invasion of Schwann cells, their prime target in PNS, suppressed host-cell apoptosis caused by growth-factor deprivation. The trans-sialidase (TS) of T. cruzi and the Cys-rich domain of TS reproduced the antiapoptotic activity of the parasites at doses (> or =3.0 nM) comparable or lower than those of bona fide mammalian growth factors. This effect was blocked by LY294002, an inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K). TS also activated Akt, a downstream effector of PI3K. Ectopic expression of TS in an unrelated parasite, Leishmania major, turned those parasites into activators of Akt in Schwann cells. In contrast, the Cys-rich domain of TS did not block apoptosis in Schwann cells overexpressing dominant-negative Akt or constitutively active PTEN, a negative regulator of PI3K/Akt signaling. The results demonstrate that T. cruzi, through its TS, triggers the survival of host Schwann cells via the PI3K/Akt pathway, suggesting a role for PI3K/Akt in the pathogenesis of Chagas' disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M V Chuenkova
- Parasitology Research Center, Department of Pathology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA
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