Photodegradation of inclusion complexes of isradipine with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin

1,4-Dihydropyridine Antihypertensive Drugs: Recent Advances in Photostabilization Strategies

The 1,4-dihydropyridine (DHP) drugs are nowadays the most used drugs in the treatment of hypertension. However, all the structures in this series present a significant sensitivity to light, leading to the complete loss of pharmacological activity. This degradation is particularly evident in aqueous solution, so much so that almost all DHP drugs on the market are formulated in solid preparations, especially tablets. The first and main process of photodegradation consists in the aromatization of the dihydropyridine ring, after which secondary processes can take place on the various substituents. A potential danger can result from the formation of single oxygen and superoxide species that can in turn trigger phototoxic reactions. Several strategies for the photostabilisation of DHP drugs have been proposed in recent years, in particular with the aim to formulate these drugs in liquid preparations, as well as to limit any toxicity problems related to light degradation. This review summarizes and describes the main aspects of the studies conducted in recent years to obtain photostable formulations of DHP drugs.

Photostability Issues in Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Photostabilization

Photodegradation is one of the major pathways of the degradation of drugs. Some therapeutic agents and excipients are highly sensitive to light and undergo significant degradation, challenging the quality and the stability of the final product. The adequate knowledge of photodegradation mechanisms and kinetics of photosensitive therapeutic entities or excipients is a pivotal aspect in the product development phase. Hence, various pharmaceutical regulatory agencies, across the world, mandated the industries to assess the photodegradation of pharmaceutical products from manufacturing stage till storage, as per the guidelines given in the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH). Recently, numerous formulation and/or manufacturing strategies has been investigated for preventing the photodegradation and enhancing the photostability of photolabile components in the pharmaceutical dosage forms. The primary focus of this review is to discuss various photodegradation mechanisms, rate kinetics, and the factors that influence the rate of photodegradation. We also discuss light-induced degradation of photosensitive lipids and polymers. We conclude with a brief note on different approaches to improve the photostability of photosensitive products.

Photostability testing using online reactor HPLC hyphenation and mass spectrometric compound identification illustrated by ketoprofen as model compound

Investigations on the photochemical stability of pharmaceutical substances are mandatory in drug development and licensing as photo-induced degradation of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) may not only lead to decreased API concentrations but also to toxic or reactive products. Thus, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) issued Guidance for Industry Q1B "Photostability Testing of New Drug Substances and Products" for testing of pure but also packed drugs. However, photoproducts are also known to be generated in vivo under sunlight exposure of the skin and lead to considerable amounts of adverse drug effects. Herein we present an alternative system that may be used for photostability testing mimicking both situations. It combines a tailored photoreactor with an exchangeable pen light source and a modified HPLC system with online-SPE. Identification of photoproducts may be performed using mass spectrometry. The potential of accurate mass spectrometry as a tool for identification of photoproducts was demonstrated as well. A comparison of the online photoreactor system and the traditional photochamber irradiation was performed using ketoprofen for proof of concept. In both designs acetylbenzophenone and ethylbenzophenone were detected as main photoproducts. The new device allows for fast and easy photostability studies that may help to reduce time consuming in vitro experiments and animal trials. Using state of the art instruments kinetic studies could also easily be performed with qualitative and quantitative perspectives combined into one experimental design with only very low amounts of API needed. This may be useful in early drug development, where only small amounts of API are available. Scale-up may also be easily realized for the generation of reference material for quantification and quality control (QC) processes as well as for toxicity testing.

Effects of cyclodextrins on the chemical stability of drugs

Cyclodextrins (CDs) are enabling pharmaceutical excipients that can enhance both solubility and stability of wide variety of drugs in aqueous solutions through formation of drug/CD inclusion complexes where apolar moieties of the drug molecules are located inside the CD cavity. In properly designed pharmaceutical formulations CDs will improve physiochemical properties of lipophilic drugs without affecting their intrinsic ability to permeate biological membranes. Here the effect of CD complexes on the chemical stability of drugs is reviewed. Numerous studies shown that in aqueous solutions CD complexation can hamper hydrolysis, oxidation, photodegradation, isomerization and enzyme catalyzed degradation of dissolved drugs. However, some drugs, such as β-lactam antibiotics, can under certain conditions undergo CD catalyzed degradation in aqueous solutions. Also, some drugs that are stabilized by CDs in aqueous solutions are destabilized by the same CDs in solid dosage forms. Thus, the effects of CDs on drug stability have to be tested and verified in the final drug formulation and under the recommended storage conditions.

Remediation of 4-nonylphenol in aqueous solution by using free radicals generated by the oxidative reactions

INTRODUCTION

This study relates to use of zerovalent iron to generate hydroxyl free radicals and undergo subsequent oxidation to destroy 4-nonylphenol (NP) by mild process in aqueous solution and activation of oxygen gas (O2) at room temperature. This technology is based on a novel oxidative mechanism mediated by zerovalent iron rather than commonly used reduction mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A laboratory scale device consisting of a 250 ml pyrex serum vials fixed to a Vortex agitator was used. Different amounts of zerovalent iron powder (ZVI; 1, 10, and 30 g/l) at pH 4 and room temperature with bubbling of oxygen gas were investigated.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Experiments showed an observed degradation rate k (obs) directly proportional to the amount of iron. 4-Nonylphenol degradation reactions demonstrated first-order kinetics with a half-life of about 10.5  ±  0.5 and 3.5  ±  0.2 min when experiments were conducted at [ZVI] = 1 and 30 g/l respectively. Three analytical techniques were employed to monitor 4-nonylphenol degradation and mineralization: (1) spectrofluorimetry; (2) high-performance liquid chromatography; (3) total organic carbon meter (TOC meter). Results showed a complete disappearance of 4-nonylphenol after 20 min of contact with ZVI. The intermediate by-products of the reaction were not identified but the disappearance of NP was monitored by the three above-mentioned techniques.

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry identification of photoproducts of hexahydroquinoline derivatives: potential calcium channel antagonists

Photodegradation products of hexahydroquinoline derivatives (HHQ) have been analysed with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The photodegradation was carried out under the conditions recommended in the first version of the document issued by the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH), currently in force in the studies of photochemical stability of drugs and therapeutic substances. The study was performed on the compounds having two chlorine atoms at different positions of the phenyl ring. Photodegradation of dichlorophenyl derivatives of HHQ resulted in formation of one or three photoproducts. The main product of their decomposition was aromatic compound formed as a result of dehydrogenation of the dihydropyridine ring. The most often observed fragmentation pathway of the photoproducts formed was elimination of methyl and methoxy radicals from the ester groups. The fragmentation of the photoproducts containing one chlorine atom at the ortho-position of the phenyl ring occurred through elimination of chlorine radical.

Accelerated photostability study of tretinoin and isotretinoin in liposome formulations

The photodegradation of retinoic acids, tretinoin and isotretinoin, in ethanol and liposomes was studied. The light irradiation was performed according to the conditions suggested by the ICH Guideline for photostability testing by using a Xenon lamp within a wavelength range of 300-800 nm. The photodegradation process was monitored by UV spectrophotometry. In ethanol solution, tretinoin and isotretinoin undergo complete isomerization just within a few seconds of light exposure to give 13-cis and 9-cis isomers, respectively. The 13-cis isomer from tretinoin undergoes in turn a slow isomerization to the same 9-cis isomer. Both retinoic acids incorporated in liposome complexes showed an increased stability in comparison to the ethanol solutions. In particular for tretinoin, a residual concentration of 60% was still present after a light irradiance of 3470 kJ/m(2), by means of a 250 W/m(2) light power for 240 min, versus a residual value of just 8% measured at the same time in ethanol solution. Moreover, the isomerization rate in liposomes resulted reduced for isotretinoin and practically irrelevant for tretinoin. The degradation rate was found to be dependent on the drug concentration. The better stability of the tretinoin in liposome complex was supposed to be related to its higher incorporation value due to the linear structure of the molecule.

Síntese e estudo da fotoestabilidade de derivados azalactônicos encapsulados em beta-ciclodextrina

Neste trabalho foram sintetizados 12 derivados azalactônicos pela metodologia clássica de Plöchl-Erlenmeyer. Destes, um foi avaliado quanto a fotoestabilidade em solução por meio de experimentos de fotodegradação utilizando agentes encapsulantes e diferentes solventes. Para a irradiação das amostras foi empregada uma lâmpada de mercúrio de 80W. Os resultados mostram que a fotodegradação do corante ocorre muito mais rapidamente em solventes polares e que o agente encapsulante é fundamental na sua fotoestabilidade.

Spectrophotometric and electrochemical study of the inclusion complex between β-cyclodextrin and furnidipine

Inclusion complexation between furnidipine (2,6-dimethyl-4-(2-nitrophenyl)-1,4-dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarboxylic acid 3-tetrahydrofurfuryl 5-methyl diester), a calcium-channel antagonist, and beta-cyclodextrin (beta-CyD) was studied in aqueous solution by using both spectrophotometric and electrochemical measurements. The phase solubility profile was classified as A(L)-type, indicating the formation of 1:1 stoichiometric inclusion complex of furnidipine with beta-CyD. Based on the spectrophotometric absorbance's variations, a formation constant value, K(f), of 156 M(-1) was determined. Electrochemical measurements using chronocoulometric experiments were used for the determination of the diffusion coefficients. In absence of beta-CyD, a diffusion coefficient value of 4.32 x 10(-6) cm2 s(-1) was obtained for furnidipine. The addition of beta-CyD produced a decrease of 30% for the diffusion coefficient. Formation of inclusion complexes of furnidipine with beta-CyD was proved to increase more than three times the solubility of furnidipine.

Design and monitoring of photostability systems for amlodipine dosage forms

Photostability of amlodipine (AML) has been monitored in several pharmaceutical inclusion systems characterized by plurimolecular aggregation of the drug and excipients with high molecular weight. Several formulations including cyclodextrins, liposomes and microspheres have been prepared and characterized. The photodegradation process has been monitored according to the conditions suggested by the ICH Guideline for photostability testing, by using a light cabinet equipped with a Xenon lamp and monitored by spectrophotometry. The formulations herein tested have been found to be able to considerably increase drug stability, when compared with usual pharmaceutical forms. The residual concentration detected in the inclusion complexes with cyclodextrins and liposomes was 90 and 77%, respectively, while a very good value of 97% was found for microspheres, after a radiant exposure of 11,340 kJm(-2).

Effect of inclusion complexation with cyclodextrins on photostability of nifedipine in solid state

Nifedipine is a highly photosensitive drug that requires restricted protection from light during manufacturing, storage and handling of its dosage forms. Inclusion complexation of nifedipine with cyclodextrins (CDs) could be advantageous in protecting the drug against the effect of light. In this study, solid inclusion complexes of nifedipine with beta-cyclodextrin (beta-CD), hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HP-beta-CD) and dimethyl-beta-cyclodextrin (DM-beta-CD) were prepared using the coprecipitation method. The obtained solid inclusion complexes have been confirmed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy (IR). The IR spectra indicated partial inclusion of nifedipine molecules into CD cavities through the dihydropyridine ring. Inclusion complexation was also associated with a dramatic enhancement of drug dissolution with magnitudes depended on the type of CD. The effect of exposure to fluorescent lamp and sunlight on the photodegradation of uncomplexed and complexed nifedipine was tested. Photodegradation of nifedipine was monitored using a high performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) assay method. Inclusion complexation of nifedipine showed to retard drug photodegradation as indicated by degradation rate constant lowering with values depended on light source and type of complexing agent. This effect was the least with beta-CD compared with that of modified beta-CD. It was also interesting to notice that inclusion complexation of nifedipine offered much higher protection against the effect of fluorescent lamp than that of sunlight. The obtained results suggests that the design of solid dosage forms of nifedipine such as a fast dissolving nifedipine tablets is possible with the advantages of low required light protection.

Hydrolytic degradation of nitrendipine and nisoldipine

The development of a new HPLC-UV diode array procedure applied to follow the hydrolytic degradation of two well-known 4-nitrophenyl-1,4-dihydropyridine derivatives, nitrendipine and nisoldipine is reported. Hydrolysis of each drug were carried out in ethanol/Britton-Robinson buffer at different pHs, stored into amber vials at controlled temperatures of 40, 60 and 80 degrees C and periodically sampled and assayed by HPLC. Nitrendipine degradation in different parenteral solutions was also evaluated. The HPLC procedure exhibited an adequate selectivity, repeatability (<1%) and reproducibility (<2%). The recoveries were higher than 98% with CV of 1.13 and 1.54% for nitrendipine and nisoldipine, respectively. A significant degradation was observed at alkaline pH (>pH 8) with a first order kinetic for both drugs. At pH 12, 80 degrees C, k values of 3.56x10(-2) x h(-1) and 2.22x10(-2) for nitrendipine and nisoldipine, respectively were obtained. Also, activation energies of 16.8 and 14.7 kcal x mol(-1) for nitrendipine and nisoldipine, respectively, were calculated. Furthermore, from the results obtained from hydrolytic degradation in different solutions for parenteral use, we can affirm that solutions significantly increased the degradation of nitrendipine. In conclusion, the HPLC proposed procedure exhibited adequate analytical requirements to be applied to the hydrolytic degradation studies of nitrendipine and nisoldipine. Furthermore, all tested parenteral solutions significantly increased the hydrolytic degradation of nitrendipine, the composition of solution being a relevant factor.