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Meenderink SWF, Warn M, Anchondo LM, Liu Y, Jung TTK, Dong W. Assessment of middle ear structure and function with optical coherence tomography. Acta Otolaryngol 2023; 143:558-562. [PMID: 37366291 DOI: 10.1080/00016489.2023.2224846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Current clinical tests for middle ear (ME) injuries and related conductive hearing loss (CHL) are lengthy and costly, lacking the ability to noninvasively evaluate both structure and function in real time. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) provides both, but its application to the audiological clinic is currently limited. OBJECTIVE Adapt and use a commercial Spectral-Domain OCT (SD-OCT) to evaluate anatomy and sound-evoked vibrations of the tympanic membrane (TM) and ossicles in the human ME. MATERIALS AND METHODS SD-OCT was used to capture high-resolution three-dimensional (3D) ME images and measure sound-induced vibrations of the TM and ossicles in fresh human temporal bones. RESULTS The 3D images provided thickness maps of the TM. The system was, with some software adaptations, also capable of phase-sensitive vibrometry. Measurements revealed several modes of TM vibration that became more complex with frequency. Vibrations were also measured from the incus, through the TM. This quantified ME sound transmission, which is the essential measure to assess CHL. CONCLUSION AND SIGNIFICANCE We adapted a commercial SD-OCT to visualize the anatomy and function of the human ME. OCT has the potential to revolutionize point-of-care assessment of ME disruptions that lead to CHL which are otherwise indistinguishable via otoscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Warn
- University of California Riverside School of Medicine, Riverside, CA, USA
| | | | - Yuan Liu
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Loma Linda University Health, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Timothy T K Jung
- VA Loma Linda Healthcare System, Loma Linda, CA, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Loma Linda University Health, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Wei Dong
- VA Loma Linda Healthcare System, Loma Linda, CA, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Loma Linda University Health, Loma Linda, CA, USA
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Transtympanic Visualization of Cochlear Implant Placement With Optical Coherence Tomography: A Pilot Study. Otol Neurotol 2022; 43:e824-e828. [PMID: 35970156 DOI: 10.1097/mao.0000000000003635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to evaluate the ability of transtympanic middle ear optical coherence tomography (ME-OCT) to assess placement of cochlear implants (CIs) in situ. PATIENT A 72-year-old man with bilateral progressive heredodegenerative sensorineural hearing loss due to work-related noise exposure received a CI with a slim modiolar electrode for his right ear 3 months before his scheduled checkup. INTERVENTION A custom-built swept source ME-OCT system (λo = 1550 nm, ∆λ = 40 nm) designed for transtympanic middle ear imaging was used to capture a series of two- and three-dimensional images of the patient's CI in situ. Separately, transtympanic OCT two-dimensional video imaging and three-dimensional imaging were used to visualize insertion and removal of a CI with a slim modiolar electrode in a human cadaveric temporal bone through a posterior tympanotomy. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Images and video were analyzed qualitatively to determine the visibility of implant features under ME-OCT imaging and quantitatively to determine insertion depth of the CI. RESULTS After implantation, the CI electrode could be readily visualized in the round window niche under transtympanic ME-OCT in both the patient and the temporal bone. In both cases, characteristic design features of the slim modiolar electrode allowed us to quantify the insertion depth from our images. CONCLUSIONS ME-OCT could potentially be used in a clinic as a noninvasive, nonionizing means to confirm implant placement. This study shows that features of the CI electrode visible under ME-OCT can be used to quantify insertion depth in the postoperative ear.
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Oh SJ, Lee IW, Wang SG, Kong SK, Kim HK, Goh EK. Extratympanic Observation of Middle and Inner Ear Structures in Rodents Using Optical Coherence Tomography. Clin Exp Otorhinolaryngol 2019; 13:106-112. [PMID: 31668054 PMCID: PMC7248603 DOI: 10.21053/ceo.2019.00766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives This study aimed to investigate whether optical coherence tomography (OCT) provides useful information about the microstructures of the middle and inner ear via extratympanic approach and thereby could be utilized as an alternative diagnostic technology in ear imaging. Methods Five rats and mice were included, and the swept-source OCT system was applied to confirm the extent of visibility of the middle and inner ear and measure the length or thickness of the microstructures in the ear. The cochlea was subsequently dissected following OCT and histologically evaluated to compare with the OCT images. Results The middle ear microstructures such as ossicles, stapedial artery and oval window through the tympanic membrane with the OCT could be confirmed in both rats and mice. It was also possible to obtain the inner ear images such as each compartment of the cochlea in the mice, but the bone covering bulla needed to be removed to visualize the inner ear structures in the rats which had thicker bulla. The bony thickness covering the cochlea could be measured, which showed no significant differences between OCT and histologic image at all turns of cochlea. Conclusion OCT has been shown a promising technology to assess real-time middle and inner ear microstructures noninvasively with a high-resolution in the animal model. Therefore, OCT could be utilized to provide additional diagnostic information about the diseases of the middle and inner ear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Se-Joon Oh
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Pusan National University Hospital, Pusan National University School of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Busan, Korea
| | - Il-Woo Lee
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Pusan National University Yangsan Hospital, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Seoul, Korea
| | - Soo-Geun Wang
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Pusan National University Hospital, Pusan National University School of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Busan, Korea
| | - Soo-Keun Kong
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Pusan National University Hospital, Pusan National University School of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Busan, Korea
| | | | - Eui-Kyung Goh
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Pusan National University Hospital, Pusan National University School of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Busan, Korea
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High-resolution Imaging of the Human Cochlea through the Round Window by means of Optical Coherence Tomography. Sci Rep 2019; 9:14271. [PMID: 31582808 PMCID: PMC6776619 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-50727-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The human cochlea is deeply embedded in the temporal bone and surrounded by a thick otic capsule, rendering its internal structure inaccessible for direct visualization. Clinical imaging techniques fall short of their resolution for imaging of the intracochlear structures with sufficient detail. As a result, there is a lack of knowledge concerning best practice for intracochlear therapy placement, such as cochlear implantation. In the past decades, optical coherence tomography (OCT) has proven valuable for non-invasive, high-resolution, cross-sectional imaging of tissue microstructure in various fields of medicine, including ophthalmology, cardiology and dermatology. There is an upcoming interest for OCT imaging of the cochlea, which so far was mostly carried out in small animals. In this temporal bone study, we focused on high-resolution imaging of the human cochlea. The cochlea was approached through mastoidectomy and posterior tympanotomy, both standard surgical procedures. A commercially available spectral-domain OCT imaging system was used to obtain high-resolution images of the cochlear hook region through the intact round window membrane in four cadaveric human temporal bones. We discuss the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of intracochlear structures on OCT images and their importance for cochlear implant surgery.
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Burwood GWS, Fridberger A, Wang RK, Nuttall AL. Revealing the morphology and function of the cochlea and middle ear with optical coherence tomography. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019; 9:858-881. [PMID: 31281781 PMCID: PMC6571188 DOI: 10.21037/qims.2019.05.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has revolutionized physiological studies of the hearing organ, the vibration and morphology of which can now be measured without opening the surrounding bone. In this review, we provide an overview of OCT as used in the otological research, describing advances and different techniques in vibrometry, angiography, and structural imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- George W. S. Burwood
- Department of Otolaryngology, Oregon Hearing Research Center/HNS, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Anders Fridberger
- Department of Otolaryngology, Oregon Hearing Research Center/HNS, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Section for Neurobiology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Ruikang K. Wang
- Department of Bioengineering and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Alfred L. Nuttall
- Department of Otolaryngology, Oregon Hearing Research Center/HNS, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
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Ramier A, Cheng JT, Ravicz ME, Rosowski JJ, Yun SH. Mapping the phase and amplitude of ossicular chain motion using sound-synchronous optical coherence vibrography. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2018; 9:5489-5502. [PMID: 30460142 PMCID: PMC6238908 DOI: 10.1364/boe.9.005489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Revised: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The sound-driven vibration of the tympanic membrane and ossicular chain of middle-ear bones is fundamental to hearing. Here we show that optical coherence tomography in phase synchrony with a sound stimulus is well suited for volumetric, vibrational imaging of the ossicles and tympanic membrane. This imaging tool - OCT vibrography - provides intuitive motion pictures of the ossicular chain and how they vary with frequency. Using the chinchilla ear as a model, we investigated the vibrational snapshots and phase delays of the manubrium, incus, and stapes over 100 Hz to 15 kHz. The vibrography images reveal a previously undescribed mode of motion of the chinchilla ossicles at high frequencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Ramier
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jeffrey Tao Cheng
- Eaton-Peabody Laboratories, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Michael E. Ravicz
- Eaton-Peabody Laboratories, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Boston, MA, USA
| | - John J. Rosowski
- Eaton-Peabody Laboratories, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Seok-Hyun Yun
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
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Burkhardt A, Kirsten L, Bornitz M, Zahnert T, Koch E. Investigation of the human tympanic membrane oscillation ex vivo by Doppler optical coherence tomography. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2014; 7:434-41. [PMID: 23225692 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201200186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2012] [Revised: 10/23/2012] [Accepted: 11/20/2012] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Investigations of the tympanic membrane (TM) can have an important impact on understanding the sound conduction in the ear and can therefore support the diagnosis and treatment of diseases in the middle ear. High-speed Doppler optical coherence tomography (OCT) has the potential to describe the oscillatory behaviour of the TM surface in a phase-sensitive manner and additionally allows acquiring a three-dimensional image of the underlying structure. With repeated sound stimuli from 0.4 kHz to 6.4 kHz, the whole TM can be set in vibration and the spatially resolved frequency response functions (FRFs) of the tympanic membrane can be recorded. Typical points, such as the umbo or the manubrium of malleus, can be studied separately as well as the TM surface with all stationary and wave-like vibrations. Thus, the OCT methodology can be a promising technique to distinguish between normal and pathological TMs and support the differentiation between ossicular and membrane diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anke Burkhardt
- Dresden University of Technology, Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, Department Clinical Sensoring and Monitoring, Fetscherstraße 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany.
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Kong SK, Chon KM, Goh EK, Lee IW, Wang SG. Extratympanic observation of middle ear structure using a refractive index matching material (glycerol) and an infrared camera. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2014; 19:055003. [PMID: 24805807 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.19.5.055003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 03/31/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
High-resolution computed tomography has been used mainly in the diagnosis of middle ear disease, such as high-jugular bulb, congenital cholesteatoma, and ossicular disruption. However, certain diagnoses are confirmed through exploratory tympanotomy. There are few noninvasive methods available to observe the middle ear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of glycerol as a refractive index matching material and an infrared (IR) camera system for extratympanic observation. 30% glycerol was used as a refractive index matching material in five fresh cadavers. Each material was divided into four subgroups; GN (glycerol no) group, GO (glycerol out) group, GI (glycerol in) group, and GB (glycerol both) group. A printed letter and middle ear structures on the inside tympanic membrane were observed using a visible and IR ray camera system. In the GB group, there were marked a transilluminated letter or an ossicle on the inside tympanic membrane. In particular, a footplate of stapes was even transilluminated using the IR camera system in the GB group. This method can be useful in the diagnosis of diseases of the middle ear if it is clinically applied through further studies.
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Van der Jeught S, Dirckx JJJ, Aerts JRM, Bradu A, Podoleanu AG, Buytaert JAN. Full-field thickness distribution of human tympanic membrane obtained with optical coherence tomography. J Assoc Res Otolaryngol 2013; 14:483-94. [PMID: 23673509 PMCID: PMC3705083 DOI: 10.1007/s10162-013-0394-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Accepted: 04/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The full-field thickness distribution, three-dimensional surface model and general morphological data of six human tympanic membranes are presented. Cross-sectional images were taken perpendicular through the membranes using a high-resolution optical coherence tomography setup. Five normal membranes and one membrane containing a pathological site are included in this study. The thickness varies strongly across each membrane, and a great deal of inter-specimen variability can be seen in the measurement results, though all membranes show similar features in their respective relative thickness distributions. Mean thickness values across the pars tensa ranged between 79 and 97 μm; all membranes were thinnest in the central region between umbo and annular ring (50-70 μm), and thickness increased steeply over a small distance to approximately 100-120 μm when moving from the central region either towards the peripheral rim of the pars tensa or towards the manubrium. Furthermore, a local thickening was noticed in the antero-inferior quadrant of the membranes, and a strong linear correlation was observed between inferior-posterior length and mean thickness of the membrane. These features were combined into a single three-dimensional model to form an averaged representation of the human tympanic membrane. 3D reconstruction of the pathological tympanic membrane shows a structural atrophy with retraction pocket in the inferior portion of the pars tensa. The change of form at the pathological site of the membrane corresponds well with the decreased thickness values that can be measured there.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Van der Jeught
- />Laboratory of Biomedical Physics, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Joris J. J. Dirckx
- />Laboratory of Biomedical Physics, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Johan R. M. Aerts
- />Laboratory of Biomedical Physics, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Adrian Bradu
- />Applied Optics Group, School of Physical Sciences, University of Kent, CT2 7NH Canterbury, UK
| | - Adrian Gh Podoleanu
- />Applied Optics Group, School of Physical Sciences, University of Kent, CT2 7NH Canterbury, UK
| | - Jan A. N. Buytaert
- />Laboratory of Biomedical Physics, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020 Antwerp, Belgium
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Just T, Guder E, Pau HW. Effect of the stapedotomy technique on early post-operative hearing results--Preliminary results. Auris Nasus Larynx 2011; 39:383-6. [PMID: 21862257 DOI: 10.1016/j.anl.2011.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Revised: 07/13/2011] [Accepted: 07/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare three stapedotomy modalities used to fenestrate the stapes footplate in patients with primary otosclerosis. MATERIALS The non-randomized and unblinded one-center study included 48 patients with primary otosclerosis who underwent stapes surgery between May 2008 and April 2009. The patients were divided into three groups (single shot and two-shot CO(2) laser stapedotomy, perforator) depending on the modality used for stapedotomy. Bone conduction (BC) and air conduction (AC) thresholds, air-bone gap (ABG), and the difference between mean pre-operative and 2- to 3-week post-operative BC thresholds were analyzed. RESULTS The temporary BC deterioration was most pronounced at 6 and 8kHz after 2-shot laser stapedotomy. A significant drop in AC or BC was not found in any of our 48 patients. Age, high-dose cortisone therapy, and 'preoperative hearing' did not influence the post-operative hearing results. CONCLUSION Even though the number of patients presented here was small and statistical analysis was limited, the study showed a trend toward worse BC thresholds at 6 and 8kHz after a second shot CO(2) application. Whenever possible, treatment should avoid a second laser shot on the already opened inner ear with the laser parameters used for the initial shot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tino Just
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University of Rostock, Doberaner Strasse 137-139, D-18057 Rostock, Germany.
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Ovári A, Pau HW, Just T. [Optical coherence tomography in otolaryngology]. Orv Hetil 2011; 152:1125-32. [PMID: 21712174 DOI: 10.1556/oh.2011.29164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Optical coherence tomography is an imaging technique based on coherence interferometry. It is used in many medical fields due to its non-invasive imaging capabilities with micrometer resolution. The aim of the authors was to review the applicability of the optical coherence tomography in otolaryngology. Literature data and their own studies show that optical coherence tomography is a reliable method for identifying and targeted biopsy of inflammated, pre-malignant or cancer tissue in human laryngeal and pharyngeal mucosa. Another emerging field for optical coherence tomography is diagnosis of middle ear diseases, especially stapes ankylosis and cholesteatoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Attila Ovári
- Universität Rostock Klinik und Poliklinik für Hals-Nasen-Ohrenheilkunde, Kopf- und Halschirurgie "Otto Körner" Rostock
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Detection of tympanic membrane movement using film patch with integrated strain gauge, assessed by optical coherence tomography: experimental study. The Journal of Laryngology & Otology 2011; 125:467-73. [DOI: 10.1017/s0022215110002859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
AbstractObjective:We report an ex vivo and in vivo experimental study of a device designed to measure tympanic membrane movement under normal and pathological conditions, assessed using optical coherence tomography.Materials and methods:We designed two types of flexible, round film patch with integrated strain gauge, to be attached to the tympanic membrane in order to measure tympanic membrane movement. Tympanic membrane attachment was assessed using optical coherence tomography. The devices were tested experimentally using an ex vivo model with varying middle-ear pressure.Results:Optical coherence tomography reliably assessed attachment of the film patch to the tympanic membrane, before and after middle-ear pressure changes. Strain gauge voltage changes were directly proportional to middle-ear pressure recordings, for low pressure changes. Tympanic membrane perforations smaller than 2 mm could be sealed off with the film patch.Conclusion:Attachment of the film patch with integrated strain gauge to the tympanic membrane was not ideal. Nevertheless, the strain gauge was able to precisely detect small pressure changes within the middle ear, in this experimental model.
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Current Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery. Current world literature. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2010; 18:466-74. [PMID: 20827086 DOI: 10.1097/moo.0b013e32833f3865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Gabriele ML, Wollstein G, Ishikawa H, Xu J, Kim J, Kagemann L, Folio LS, Schuman JS. Three dimensional optical coherence tomography imaging: advantages and advances. Prog Retin Eye Res 2010; 29:556-79. [PMID: 20542136 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2010.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Three dimensional (3D) ophthalmic imaging using optical coherence tomography (OCT) has revolutionized assessment of the eye, the retina in particular. Recent technological improvements have made the acquisition of 3D-OCT datasets feasible. However, while volumetric data can improve disease diagnosis and follow-up, novel image analysis techniques are now necessary in order to process the dense 3D-OCT dataset. Fundamental software improvements include methods for correcting subject eye motion, segmenting structures or volumes of interest, extracting relevant data post hoc and signal averaging to improve delineation of retinal layers. In addition, innovative methods for image display, such as C-mode sectioning, provide a unique viewing perspective and may improve interpretation of OCT images of pathologic structures. While all of these methods are being developed, most remain in an immature state. This review describes the current status of 3D-OCT scanning and interpretation, and discusses the need for standardization of clinical protocols as well as the potential benefits of 3D-OCT scanning that could come when software methods for fully exploiting these rich datasets are available clinically. The implications of new image analysis approaches include improved reproducibility of measurements garnered from 3D-OCT, which may then help improve disease discrimination and progression detection. In addition, 3D-OCT offers the potential for preoperative surgical planning and intraoperative surgical guidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L Gabriele
- Department of Ophthalmology, UPMC Eye Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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