1
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Letko Khait N, Zuccaro S, Abdo D, Cui H, Siu R, Ho E, Morshead CM, Shoichet MS. Redesigned chondroitinase ABC degrades inhibitory chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in vitro and in vivo in the stroke-injured rat brain. Biomaterials 2024; 314:122818. [PMID: 39260032 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2024.122818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 09/03/2024] [Accepted: 09/05/2024] [Indexed: 09/13/2024]
Abstract
Injuries to the central nervous system, such as stroke and traumatic spinal cord injury, result in an aggregate scar that both limits tissue degeneration and inhibits tissue regeneration. The aggregate scar includes chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), which impede cell migration and axonal outgrowth. Chondroitinase ABC (ChASE) is a potent yet fragile enzyme that degrades CSPGs, and thus may enable tissue regeneration. ChASE37, with 37-point mutations to the native enzyme, has been shown to be more stable than ChASE, but its efficacy has never been tested. To answer this question, we investigated the efficacy of ChASE37 first in vitro using human cell-based assays and then in vivo in a rodent model of stroke. We demonstrated ChASE37 degradation of CSPGs in vitro and the consequent cell adhesion and axonal sprouting now possible using human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived neurons. To enable prolonged release of ChASE37 to injured tissue, we expressed it as a fusion protein with a Src homology 3 (SH3) domain and modified an injectable, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) hydrogel with SH3-binding peptides (CMC-bp) using inverse electron-demand Diels-Alder chemistry. We injected this affinity release CMC-bp/SH3-ChASE37 hydrogel epicortically to endothelin-1 stroke-injured rats and confirmed bioactivity via degradation of CSPGs and axonal sprouting in and around the lesion. With CSPG degradation shown both in vitro by greater cell interaction and in vivo with local delivery from a sustained release formulation, we lay the foundation to test the potential of ChASE37 and its delivery by local affinity release for tissue regeneration after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitzan Letko Khait
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E5, Canada; Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Sabrina Zuccaro
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E5, Canada; Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Dhana Abdo
- Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Hong Cui
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E5, Canada; Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Ricky Siu
- Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Eric Ho
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E5, Canada; Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Cindi M Morshead
- Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada; Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, 149 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Molly S Shoichet
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E5, Canada; Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3H6, Canada.
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2
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Zhao S, Xue C, Burns DC, Shoichet MS. Viscoelastic Supramolecular Hyaluronan-Peptide Cross-Linked Hydrogels. Biomacromolecules 2024; 25:3946-3958. [PMID: 38913947 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.4c00095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/26/2024]
Abstract
Viscoelasticity plays a key role in hydrogel design. We designed a physically cross-linked hydrogel with tunable viscoelasticity, comprising supramolecular-assembled peptides coupled to hyaluronan (HA), a native extracellular matrix component. We then explored the structural and molecular mechanisms underlying the mechanical properties of a series of these HA-peptide hydrogels. By modifying the peptide sequence, we modulated both long- and short-time stress relaxation rates as a way to target viscoelasticity with limited impact on stiffness, leading to gels that relax up to 60% of stress in 10 min. Gels with the highest viscoelasticity exhibited large mesh sizes and β-sheet secondary structures. The stiffness of the gel correlated with hydrogen bonding between the peptide chains. These gels are cytocompatible: highly viscoelastic gels that mimic the native skin microenvironment promote dermal fibroblast cell spreading. Moreover, HA-peptide gels enabled cell encapsulation, as shown with primary human T cells. Overall, these physically-cross-linked hydrogels enable tunable viscoelasticity that can be used to modulate cell morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer Zhao
- Division of Engineering Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1, Canada
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1, Canada
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1, Canada
| | - Chang Xue
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1, Canada
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1, Canada
| | - Darcy C Burns
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1, Canada
| | - Molly S Shoichet
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1, Canada
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1, Canada
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3
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Galindo AN, Frey Rubio DA, Hettiaratchi MH. Biomaterial strategies for regulating the neuroinflammatory response. MATERIALS ADVANCES 2024; 5:4025-4054. [PMID: 38774837 PMCID: PMC11103561 DOI: 10.1039/d3ma00736g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024]
Abstract
Injury and disease in the central nervous system (CNS) can result in a dysregulated inflammatory environment that inhibits the repair of functional tissue. Biomaterials present a promising approach to tackle this complex inhibitory environment and modulate the mechanisms involved in neuroinflammation to halt the progression of secondary injury and promote the repair of functional tissue. In this review, we will cover recent advances in biomaterial strategies, including nanoparticles, hydrogels, implantable scaffolds, and neural probe coatings, that have been used to modulate the innate immune response to injury and disease within the CNS. The stages of inflammation following CNS injury and the main inflammatory contributors involved in common neurodegenerative diseases will be discussed, as understanding the inflammatory response to injury and disease is critical for identifying therapeutic targets and designing effective biomaterial-based treatment strategies. Biomaterials and novel composites will then be discussed with an emphasis on strategies that deliver immunomodulatory agents or utilize cell-material interactions to modulate inflammation and promote functional tissue repair. We will explore the application of these biomaterial-based strategies in the context of nanoparticle- and hydrogel-mediated delivery of small molecule drugs and therapeutic proteins to inflamed nervous tissue, implantation of hydrogels and scaffolds to modulate immune cell behavior and guide axon elongation, and neural probe coatings to mitigate glial scarring and enhance signaling at the tissue-device interface. Finally, we will present a future outlook on the growing role of biomaterial-based strategies for immunomodulation in regenerative medicine and neuroengineering applications in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alycia N Galindo
- Phil and Penny Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact, University of Oregon Eugene OR USA
| | - David A Frey Rubio
- Phil and Penny Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact, University of Oregon Eugene OR USA
| | - Marian H Hettiaratchi
- Phil and Penny Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact, University of Oregon Eugene OR USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oregon Eugene OR USA
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4
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Degirmenci A, Sanyal R, Sanyal A. Metal-Free Click-Chemistry: A Powerful Tool for Fabricating Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications. Bioconjug Chem 2024; 35:433-452. [PMID: 38516745 PMCID: PMC11036366 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.4c00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 02/17/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Increasing interest in the utilization of hydrogels in various areas of biomedical sciences ranging from biosensing and drug delivery to tissue engineering has necessitated the synthesis of these materials using efficient and benign chemical transformations. In this regard, the advent of "click" chemistry revolutionized the design of hydrogels and a range of efficient reactions was utilized to obtain hydrogels with increased control over their physicochemical properties. The ability to apply the "click" chemistry paradigm to both synthetic and natural polymers as hydrogel precursors further expanded the utility of this chemistry in network formation. In particular, the ability to integrate clickable handles at predetermined locations in polymeric components enables the formation of well-defined networks. Although, in the early years of "click" chemistry, the copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition was widely employed, recent years have focused on the use of metal-free "click" transformations, since residual metal impurities may interfere with or compromise the biological function of such materials. Furthermore, many of the non-metal-catalyzed "click" transformations enable the fabrication of injectable hydrogels, as well as the fabrication of microstructured gels using spatial and temporal control. This review article summarizes the recent advances in the fabrication of hydrogels using various metal-free "click" reactions and highlights the applications of thus obtained materials. One could envision that the use of these versatile metal-free "click" reactions would continue to revolutionize the design of functional hydrogels geared to address unmet needs in biomedical sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aysun Degirmenci
- Department
of Chemistry, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
| | - Rana Sanyal
- Department
of Chemistry, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
- Center
for Life Sciences and Technologies, Bogazici
University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
| | - Amitav Sanyal
- Department
of Chemistry, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
- Center
for Life Sciences and Technologies, Bogazici
University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
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5
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Dimmitt N, Lin CC. Degradable and Multifunctional PEG-Based Hydrogels Formed by iEDDA Click Chemistry with Stable Click-Induced Supramolecular Interactions. Macromolecules 2024; 57:1556-1568. [PMID: 38435678 PMCID: PMC10903513 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.3c01855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
The inverse electron demand Diels-Alder (iEDDA) reactions are highly efficient click chemistry increasingly utilized in bioconjugation, live cell labeling, and the synthesis and modification of biomaterials. iEDDA click reactions have also been used to cross-link tetrazine (Tz) and norbornene (NB) modified macromers [e.g., multiarm poly(ethylene glycol) or PEG]. In these hydrogels, Tz-NB adducts exhibit stable supramolecular interactions with a high hydrolytic stability. Toward engineering a new class of PEG-based click hydrogels with highly adaptable properties, we previously reported a new group of NB-derivatized PEG macromers via reacting hydroxyl-terminated PEG with carbic anhydride (CA). In this work, we show that hydrogels cross-linked by PEGNBCA or its derivatives exhibited fast and tunable hydrolytic degradation. Here, we show that PEGNBCA (either mono- or octafunctional) and its dopamine or tyramine conjugated derivatives (i.e., PEGNB-D and PEGNB-T) readily cross-link with 4-arm PEG-Tz to form a novel class of multifunctional iEDDA click hydrogels. Through modularly adjusting the macromers with unstable and stable iEDDA click-induced supramolecular interactions (iEDDA-CSI), we achieved highly tunable degradation, with full degradation in less than 2 weeks to over two months. We also show that secondary enzymatic reactions could dynamically stiffen these hydrogels. These hydrogels could also be spatiotemporally photopatterned through visible light-initiated photochemistry. Finally, the iEDDA-CSI hydrogels post ester hydrolysis displayed shear-thinning and self-healing properties, enabling injectable delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan
H. Dimmitt
- Department of Biomedical Engineering,
Purdue School of Engineering & Technology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, United States
| | - Chien-Chi Lin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering,
Purdue School of Engineering & Technology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, United States
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6
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Kheirollahi A, Sadeghi S, Orandi S, Moayedi K, Khajeh K, Khoobi M, Golestani A. Chondroitinase as a therapeutic enzyme: Prospects and challenges. Enzyme Microb Technol 2024; 172:110348. [PMID: 37898093 DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2023.110348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Abstract
The chondroitinases (Chase) are bacterial lyases that specifically digest chondroitin sulfate and/or dermatan sulfate glycosaminoglycans via a β-elimination reaction and generate unsaturated disaccharides. In recent decades, these enzymes have attracted the attention of many researchers due to their potential applications in various aspects of medicine from the treatment of spinal cord injury to use as an analytical tool. In spite of this diverse spectrum, the application of Chase is faced with several limitations and challenges such as thermal instability and lack of a suitable delivery system. In the current review, we address potential therapeutic applications of Chase with emphasis on the challenges ahead. Then, we summarize the latest achievements to overcome the problems by considering the studies carried out in the field of enzyme engineering, drug delivery, and combination-based therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asma Kheirollahi
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Solmaz Sadeghi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shirin Orandi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kiana Moayedi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Khosro Khajeh
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 14115-154, Iran
| | - Mehdi Khoobi
- Department of Radiopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Biomaterials and Medical Biomaterials Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abolfazl Golestani
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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7
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Bonetti L, De Nardo L, Farè S. Crosslinking strategies in modulating methylcellulose hydrogel properties. SOFT MATTER 2023; 19:7869-7884. [PMID: 37817578 DOI: 10.1039/d3sm00721a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/12/2023]
Abstract
Methylcellulose (MC) hydrogels are ideal materials for the design of thermo-responsive platforms capable of exploiting the environment temperature as a driving force to activate their smart transition. However, MC hydrogels usually show reduced stability in an aqueous environment and low mechanical properties, limiting their applications' breadth. A possible approach intended to overcome these limitations is chemical crosslinking, which represents a simple yet effective strategy to modify the MC hydrogels' properties (e.g., physicochemical, mechanical, and biological). In this regard, understanding the selected crosslinking method's role in modulating the MC hydrogels' properties is a key factor in their design. This review offers a perspective on the main MC chemical crosslinking approaches reported in the literature. Three main categories can be distinguished: (i) small molecule crosslinkers, (ii) crosslinking by high-energy radiation, and (iii) crosslinking via MC chemical modification. The advantages and limitations of each approach are elucidated, and special consideration is paid to the thermo-responsive properties after crosslinking towards the development of MC hydrogels with enhanced physical stability and mechanical performance, preserving the thermo-responsive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Bonetti
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "G. Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 22, 20133, Milan, Italy.
| | - Luigi De Nardo
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "G. Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 22, 20133, Milan, Italy.
- National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Florence, Italy
| | - Silvia Farè
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "G. Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 22, 20133, Milan, Italy.
- National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM), 50121 Florence, Italy
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8
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Hao S, Wang M, Yin Z, Jing Y, Bai L, Su J. Microenvironment-targeted strategy steers advanced bone regeneration. Mater Today Bio 2023; 22:100741. [PMID: 37576867 PMCID: PMC10413201 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2023.100741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Treatment of large bone defects represents a great challenge in orthopedic and craniomaxillofacial surgery. Traditional strategies in bone tissue engineering have focused primarily on mimicking the extracellular matrix (ECM) of bone in terms of structure and composition. However, the synergistic effects of other cues from the microenvironment during bone regeneration are often neglected. The bone microenvironment is a sophisticated system that includes physiological (e.g., neighboring cells such as macrophages), chemical (e.g., oxygen, pH), and physical factors (e.g., mechanics, acoustics) that dynamically interact with each other. Microenvironment-targeted strategies are increasingly recognized as crucial for successful bone regeneration and offer promising solutions for advancing bone tissue engineering. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current microenvironment-targeted strategies and challenges for bone regeneration and further outlines prospective directions of the approaches in construction of bone organoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyue Hao
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Mingkai Wang
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Zhifeng Yin
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai Zhongye Hospital, Shanghai, 201941, China
| | - Yingying Jing
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Long Bai
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Jiacan Su
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200444, China
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9
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Pareja Tello R, Wang S, Fontana F, Correia A, Molinaro G, López Cerdà S, Hietala S, Hirvonen J, Barreto G, Santos HA. Fabrication of hydrogel microspheres via microfluidics using inverse electron demand Diels-Alder click chemistry-based tetrazine-norbornene for drug delivery and cell encapsulation applications. Biomater Sci 2023. [PMID: 37334482 DOI: 10.1039/d3bm00292f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidic on-chip production of polymeric hydrogel microspheres (MPs) can be designed for the loading of different biologically active cargos and living cells. Among different gelation strategies, ionically crosslinked microspheres generally show limited mechanical properties, meanwhile covalently crosslinked microspheres often require the use of crosslinking agents or initiators with limited biocompatibility. Inverse electron demand Diels Alder (iEDDA) click chemistry is a promising covalent crosslinking method with fast kinetics, high chemoselectivity, high efficiency and no cross-reactivity. Herein, in situ gellable iEDDA-crosslinked polymeric hydrogel microspheres are developed via water-in-oil emulsification (W/O) glass microfluidics. The microspheres are composed of two polyethylene glycol precursors modified with either tetrazine or norbornene as functional moieties. Using a single co-flow glass microfluidic platform, homogenous MPs of sizes 200-600 μm are developed and crosslinked within 2 minutes. The rheological properties of iEDDA crosslinked bulk hydrogels are maintained with a low swelling degree and a slow degradation behaviour under physiological conditions. Moreover, a high-protein loading capacity can be achieved, and the encapsulation of mammalian cells is possible. Overall, this work provides the possibility of developing microfluidics-produced iEDDA-crosslinked MPs as a potential drug vehicle and cell encapsulation system in the biomedical field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubén Pareja Tello
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.
| | - Shiqi Wang
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.
| | - Flavia Fontana
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.
| | - Alexandra Correia
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.
| | - Giuseppina Molinaro
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.
| | - Sandra López Cerdà
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.
| | - Sami Hietala
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | - Jouni Hirvonen
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.
| | - Goncalo Barreto
- Clinicum, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Orton Orthopedic Hospital, Tenholantie 10, 00280, Helsinki, Finland
- Medical Ultrasonics Laboratory (MEDUSA), Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, 02150, Espoo, Finland
| | - Hélder A Santos
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Ant. Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
- W.J. Kolff Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Materials Science, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Ant. Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
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Morozova SM. Recent Advances in Hydrogels via Diels-Alder Crosslinking: Design and Applications. Gels 2023; 9:gels9020102. [PMID: 36826272 PMCID: PMC9956184 DOI: 10.3390/gels9020102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The Diels-Alder (DA) reaction is a promising tool for obtaining covalently crosslinked hydrogels due to its reaction bioorthogonality, the absence of by-products, and the application of mild conditions without a catalyst. The resulting hydrogels are in demand for use in various fields of materials science and biomedicine. While the dynamic nature of the cycloaddition of diene and dienophile has previously been used extensively for the fabrication of self-healing materials, it has only recently spread to the expansion of the functional properties of polymer gels for bioapplications. This review describes strategies and recent examples of obtaining hydrogels based on the DA reaction, demonstrating that the emerging functional properties go beyond self-healing. The types of classifications of hydrogels are listed, depending on the type of reaction and the nature of the components. Examples of obtaining hydrogels based on the normal and inverse electron-demand DA reaction, as well as the application of hydrogels for cell culture, drug delivery, injectable gels, and wound dressings, are considered. In conclusion, possible developmental directions are discussed, including the use of diene-dienophile pairs with a low temperature for the reversal of DA reaction, the modification of nanoparticles by diene and/or dienophile fragments, and new applications such as ink for 3D printing, sensing hydrogels, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia M Morozova
- Center NTI "Digital Materials Science: New Materials and Substances", N.E. Bauman Moscow State Technical University, 2nd Baumanskaya St. 5/1, Moscow 105005, Russia
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11
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Abourehab MAS, Baisakhiya S, Aggarwal A, Singh A, Abdelgawad MA, Deepak A, Ansari MJ, Pramanik S. Chondroitin sulfate-based composites: a tour d'horizon of their biomedical applications. J Mater Chem B 2022; 10:9125-9178. [PMID: 36342328 DOI: 10.1039/d2tb01514e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Chondroitin sulfate (CS), a natural anionic mucopolysaccharide, belonging to the glycosaminoglycan family, acts as the primary element of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of diverse organisms. It comprises repeating units of disaccharides possessing β-1,3-linked N-acetyl galactosamine (GalNAc), and β-1,4-linked D-glucuronic acid (GlcA), and exhibits antitumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-coagulant, anti-oxidant, and anti-thrombogenic activities. It is a naturally acquired bio-macromolecule with beneficial properties, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and immensely low toxicity, making it the center of attention in developing biomaterials for various biomedical applications. The authors have discussed the structure, unique properties, and extraction source of CS in the initial section of this review. Further, the current investigations on applications of CS-based composites in various biomedical fields, focusing on delivering active pharmaceutical compounds, tissue engineering, and wound healing, are discussed critically. In addition, the manuscript throws light on preclinical and clinical studies associated with CS composites. A short section on Chondroitinase ABC has also been canvassed. Finally, this review emphasizes the current challenges and prospects of CS in various biomedical fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed A S Abourehab
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Umm Al Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia. .,Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Minia University, Minia 11566, Egypt
| | - Shreya Baisakhiya
- Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Sector 1, Rourkela, Odisha 769008, India.,School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu 613401, India
| | - Akanksha Aggarwal
- Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University, New Delhi, 110017, India
| | - Anshul Singh
- Department of Chemistry, Baba Mastnath University, Rohtak-124021, India
| | - Mohamed A Abdelgawad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jouf University, Sakaka, Al Jouf 72341, Saudi Arabia
| | - A Deepak
- Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai 600128, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Mohammad Javed Ansari
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, 11942, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sheersha Pramanik
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, Tamil Nadu, India.
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12
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Dimmitt NH, Arkenberg MR, de Lima Perini MM, Li J, Lin CC. Hydrolytically Degradable PEG-Based Inverse Electron Demand Diels-Alder Click Hydrogels. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2022; 8:4262-4273. [PMID: 36074814 PMCID: PMC9554872 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c00714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
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Hydrogels cross-linked by inverse electron demand Diels–Alder
(iEDDA) click chemistry are increasingly used in biomedical applications.
With a few exceptions in naturally derived and chemically modified
macromers, iEDDA click hydrogels exhibit long-term hydrolytic stability,
and no synthetic iEDDA click hydrogels can undergo accelerated and
tunable hydrolytic degradation. We have previously reported a novel
method for synthesizing norbornene (NB)-functionalized multiarm poly(ethylene
glycol) (PEG), where carbic anhydride (CA) was used to replace 5-norbornene-2-carboxylic
acid. The new PEGNBCA-based thiol-norbornene hydrogels
exhibited unexpected fast yet highly tunable hydrolytic degradation.
In this contribution, we leveraged the new PEGNBCA macromer
for forming iEDDA click hydrogels with [methyl]tetrazine ([m]Tz)-modified
macromers, leading to the first group of synthetic iEDDA click hydrogels
with highly tunable hydrolytic degradation kinetics. We further exploited
Tz and mTz dual conjugation to achieve tunable hydrolytic degradation
with an in vitro degradation time ranging from 2 weeks to 3 months.
Finally, we demonstrated the excellent in vitro cytocompatibility
and in vivo biocompatibility of the new injectable PEGNBCA-based iEDDA click cross-linked hydrogels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan H Dimmitt
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue School of Engineering & Technology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, United States
| | - Matthew R Arkenberg
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Mariana Moraes de Lima Perini
- Department of Biology, Purdue School of Science, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, United States
| | - Jiliang Li
- Department of Biology, Purdue School of Science, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, United States
| | - Chien-Chi Lin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue School of Engineering & Technology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, United States
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13
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Teal CJ, Hettiaratchi MH, Ho MT, Ortin-Martinez A, Ganesh AN, Pickering AJ, Golinski AW, Hackel BJ, Wallace VA, Shoichet MS. Directed Evolution Enables Simultaneous Controlled Release of Multiple Therapeutic Proteins from Biopolymer-Based Hydrogels. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2202612. [PMID: 35790035 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202202612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
With the advent of increasingly complex combination strategies of biologics, independent control over their delivery is the key to their efficacy; however, current approaches are hindered by the limited independent tunability of their release rates. To overcome these limitations, directed evolution is used to engineer highly specific, low affinity affibody binding partners to multiple therapeutic proteins to independently control protein release rates. As a proof-of-concept, specific affibody binding partners for two proteins with broad therapeutic utility: insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) are identified. Protein-affibody binding interactions specific to these target proteins with equilibrium dissociation constants (KD ) between 10-7 and 10-8 m are discovered. The affibodies are covalently bound to the backbone of crosslinked hydrogels using click chemistry, enabling sustained, independent, and simultaneous release of bioactive IGF-1 and PEDF over 7 days. The system is tested with C57BL/6J mice in vivo, and the affibody-controlled release of IGF-1 results in sustained activity when compared to bolus IGF-1 delivery. This work demonstrates a new, broadly applicable approach to tune the release of therapeutic proteins simultaneously and independently and thus the way for precise control over the delivery of multicomponent therapies is paved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carter J Teal
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, 164 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada
- Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Marian H Hettiaratchi
- Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Margaret T Ho
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, 164 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada
- Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Arturo Ortin-Martinez
- Donald K. Johnson Eye Institute, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, 399 Bathurst Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 2S8, Canada
| | - Ahil N Ganesh
- Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Andrew J Pickering
- Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Alex W Golinski
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 421 Washington Avenue Southeast, 356 Amundson Hall, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Benjamin J Hackel
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 421 Washington Avenue Southeast, 356 Amundson Hall, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Valerie A Wallace
- Donald K. Johnson Eye Institute, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, 399 Bathurst Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 2S8, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, 27 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A1, Canada
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, University of Toronto, 340 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 3A9, Canada
| | - Molly S Shoichet
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, 164 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada
- Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E1, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E5, Canada
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, University of Toronto, 340 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 3A9, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3H6, Canada
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14
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Cornelison C, Fadel S. Clickable Biomaterials for Modulating Neuroinflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:8496. [PMID: 35955631 PMCID: PMC9369181 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Crosstalk between the nervous and immune systems in the context of trauma or disease can lead to a state of neuroinflammation or excessive recruitment and activation of peripheral and central immune cells. Neuroinflammation is an underlying and contributing factor to myriad neuropathologies including neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease; autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis; peripheral and central nervous system infections; and ischemic and traumatic neural injuries. Therapeutic modulation of immune cell function is an emerging strategy to quell neuroinflammation and promote tissue homeostasis and/or repair. One such branch of 'immunomodulation' leverages the versatility of biomaterials to regulate immune cell phenotypes through direct cell-material interactions or targeted release of therapeutic payloads. In this regard, a growing trend in biomaterial science is the functionalization of materials using chemistries that do not interfere with biological processes, so-called 'click' or bioorthogonal reactions. Bioorthogonal chemistries such as Michael-type additions, thiol-ene reactions, and Diels-Alder reactions are highly specific and can be used in the presence of live cells for material crosslinking, decoration, protein or cell targeting, and spatiotemporal modification. Hence, click-based biomaterials can be highly bioactive and instruct a variety of cellular functions, even within the context of neuroinflammation. This manuscript will review recent advances in the application of click-based biomaterials for treating neuroinflammation and promoting neural tissue repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chase Cornelison
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA;
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15
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Bioactive injectable hydrogels for on demand molecule/cell delivery and for tissue regeneration in the central nervous system. Acta Biomater 2022; 140:88-101. [PMID: 34852302 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.11.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 11/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Currently there are no potential curative therapies that can improve the central nervous system (CNS) regeneration after traumatic injuries or diseases. Indeed, the regeneration of CNS is greatly impaired by limited drug penetration across the blood brain barrier (BBB), poor drug targeting, deficient progenitor neural cells and limited proliferation of mature neural cells. To overcome these limitations, bioengineered injectable hydrogels in combination with drug and cell therapy have been proposed to mimic the complexity of the CNS microenvironment and architecture. Additionally, to enhance relevant CNS regeneration, proper biophysical and biochemical cues are needed. Recently, great efforts have been devoted to tailor stimuli-responsive hydrogels as novel carrier systems which are able to guide neural tissue regeneration. This review provides an extensive overview on the most promising injectable hydrogels for neural tissue engineering. A special emphasis is made to highlight the ability of these hydrogels to deliver bioactive compounds/cells upon the exposure to internal and external stimuli. Bioactive injectable hydrogels have a broad application in central nervous system's (CNS) regeneration. This review gives an overview of the latest pioneering approaches in CNS recovery using stimuli-responsive hydrogels for several neurodegenerative disorders. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This review summarizes the latest innovations on bioactive injectable hydrogels, focusing on tailoring internal/external stimuli-responsive hydrogels for the new injectable systems design, able to guide neural tissue response. The purpose is to highlight the advantages and the limitations of thermo-responsive, photo responsive, magnetic responsive, electric responsive, ultrasound responsive and enzymes-triggered injectable hydrogels in developing customizable neurotherapies. We believe that this comprehensive review will help in identifying the strengths and gaps in the existing literature and to further support the use of injectable hydrogels in stimulating CNS regeneration.
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16
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Mueller E, Poulin I, Bodnaryk WJ, Hoare T. Click Chemistry Hydrogels for Extrusion Bioprinting: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23:619-640. [PMID: 34989569 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c01105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of 3D bioprinting has allowed a variety of hydrogel-based "bioinks" to be printed in the presence of cells to create precisely defined cell-loaded 3D scaffolds in a single step for advancing tissue engineering and/or regenerative medicine. While existing bioinks based primarily on ionic cross-linking, photo-cross-linking, or thermogelation have significantly advanced the field, they offer technical limitations in terms of the mechanics, degradation rates, and the cell viabilities achievable with the printed scaffolds, particularly in terms of aiming to match the wide range of mechanics and cellular microenvironments. Click chemistry offers an appealing solution to this challenge given that proper selection of the chemistry can enable precise tuning of both the gelation rate and the degradation rate, both key to successful tissue regeneration; simultaneously, the often bio-orthogonal nature of click chemistry is beneficial to maintain high cell viabilities within the scaffolds. However, to date, relatively few examples of 3D-printed click chemistry hydrogels have been reported, mostly due to the technical challenges of controlling mixing during the printing process to generate high-fidelity prints without clogging the printer. This review aims to showcase existing cross-linking modalities, characterize the advantages and disadvantages of different click chemistries reported, highlight current examples of click chemistry hydrogel bioinks, and discuss the design of mixing strategies to enable effective 3D extrusion bioprinting of click hydrogels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Mueller
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Isabelle Poulin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - William James Bodnaryk
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Todd Hoare
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
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17
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Kim MH, Lin CC. Norbornene-functionalized methylcellulose as a thermo- and photo-responsive bioink. Biofabrication 2021; 13:10.1088/1758-5090/ac24dc. [PMID: 34496360 PMCID: PMC8593879 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5090/ac24dc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has emerged as an important tool to fabricate scaffolds with complex structures for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. For extrusion-based 3D bioprinting, the success of printing complex structures relies largely on the properties of bioink. Methylcellulose (MC) has been exploited as a potential bioink for 3D bioprinting due to its temperature-dependent rheological properties. However, MC is highly soluble and has low structural stability at room temperature, making it suboptimal for 3D bioprinting applications. In this study, we report a one-step synthesis protocol for modifying MC with norbornene (MCNB), which serves as a new bioink for 3D bioprinting. MCNB preserves the temperature-dependent reversible sol-gel transition and readily reacts with thiol-bearing linkers through light-mediated step-growth thiol-norbornene photopolymerization. Furthermore, we rendered the otherwise inert MC network bioactive through facile conjugation of integrin-binding ligands (e.g. CRGDS) or via incorporating cell-adhesive and protease-sensitive gelatin-based macromer (e.g. GelNB). The adaptability of the new MCNB-based bioink offers an attractive option for diverse 3D bioprinting applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Hee Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue School of Engineering & Technology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Chien-Chi Lin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue School of Engineering & Technology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
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18
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Hui E, Sumey JL, Caliari SR. Click-functionalized hydrogel design for mechanobiology investigations. MOLECULAR SYSTEMS DESIGN & ENGINEERING 2021; 6:670-707. [PMID: 36338897 PMCID: PMC9631920 DOI: 10.1039/d1me00049g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The advancement of click-functionalized hydrogels in recent years has coincided with rapid growth in the fields of mechanobiology, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine. Click chemistries represent a group of reactions that possess high reactivity and specificity, are cytocompatible, and generally proceed under physiologic conditions. Most notably, the high level of tunability afforded by these reactions enables the design of user-controlled and tissue-mimicking hydrogels in which the influence of important physical and biochemical cues on normal and aberrant cellular behaviors can be independently assessed. Several critical tissue properties, including stiffness, viscoelasticity, and biomolecule presentation, are known to regulate cell mechanobiology in the context of development, wound repair, and disease. However, many questions still remain about how the individual and combined effects of these instructive properties regulate the cellular and molecular mechanisms governing physiologic and pathologic processes. In this review, we discuss several click chemistries that have been adopted to design dynamic and instructive hydrogels for mechanobiology investigations. We also chart a path forward for how click hydrogels can help reveal important insights about complex tissue microenvironments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Hui
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, 102 Engineer's Way, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
| | - Jenna L Sumey
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, 102 Engineer's Way, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
| | - Steven R Caliari
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, 102 Engineer's Way, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
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19
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Lv H, Wu B, Song J, Wu W, Cai W, Xu J. Hydrogel, a novel therapeutic and delivery strategy, in the treatment of intrauterine adhesions. J Mater Chem B 2021; 9:6536-6552. [PMID: 34324619 DOI: 10.1039/d1tb01005k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Intrauterine adhesions (IUAs) are caused by damage to the underlying lining of the endometrium. They' re related to disorder of endometrial repair. In recent years, hydrogels with controllable biological activity have been widely used for treating IUAs. They encapsulate estrogen, cytokines, cells, or exosomes, forming a delivery system to release therapeutic components for the treatment of IUAs. In addition, the hydrogel acting as a barrier can be degraded in the body automatically, reducing the risk of infection caused by secondary surgeries. In this review, we summarize the recent progress of hydrogels and their application in IUAs as both a novel alternative therapeutic and an artificial delivery strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houyi Lv
- Department of Reproductive Medicine, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
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20
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Ziegler CE, Graf M, Nagaoka M, Lehr H, Goepferich AM. In Situ Forming iEDDA Hydrogels with Tunable Gelation Time Release High-Molecular Weight Proteins in a Controlled Manner over an Extended Time. Biomacromolecules 2021; 22:3223-3236. [PMID: 34270216 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c00299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Off-target interactions between reactive hydrogel moieties and drug cargo as well as slow reaction kinetics and the absence of controlled protein release over an extended period of time are major drawbacks of chemically cross-linked hydrogels for biomedical applications. In this study, the inverse electron demand Diels-Alder (iEDDA) reaction between norbornene- and tetrazine-functionalized eight-armed poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) macromonomers was used to overcome these obstacles. Oscillatory shear experiments revealed that the gel point of a 15% (w/v) eight-armed PEG hydrogel with a molecular weight of 10 kDa was less than 15 s, suggesting the potential for fast in situ gelation. However, the high-speed reaction kinetics result in a risk of premature gel formation that complicates the injection process. Therefore, we investigated the effect of polymer concentration, temperature, and chemical structure on the gelation time. The cross-linking reaction was further characterized regarding bioorthogonality. Only 11% of the model protein lysozyme was found to be PEGylated by the iEDDA reaction, whereas 51% interacted with the classical Diels-Alder reaction. After determination of the mesh size, fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran was used to examine the release behavior of the hydrogels. When glucose oxidase was embedded into 15% (w/v) hydrogels, a controlled release over more than 250 days was achieved. Overall, the PEG-based hydrogels cross-linked via the fast iEDDA reaction represent a promising material for the long-term administration of biologics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian E Ziegler
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Moritz Graf
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Makoto Nagaoka
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Heike Lehr
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Achim M Goepferich
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
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21
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Contessi Negrini N, Angelova Volponi A, Sharpe PT, Celiz AD. Tunable Cross-Linking and Adhesion of Gelatin Hydrogels via Bioorthogonal Click Chemistry. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2021; 7:4330-4346. [PMID: 34086456 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c00136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Engineering cytocompatible hydrogels with tunable physico-mechanical properties as a biomimetic three-dimensional extracellular matrix (ECM) is fundamental to guide cell response and target tissue regeneration or development of in vitro models. Gelatin represents an optimal choice given its ECM biomimetic properties; however, gelatin cross-linking is required to ensure structural stability at physiological temperature (i.e., T > Tsol-gel gelatin). Here, we use a previously developed cross-linking reaction between tetrazine (Tz)- and norbornene (Nb) modified gelatin derivatives to prepare gelatin hydrogels and we demonstrate the possible tuning of their properties by varying their degree of modification (DOM) and the Tz/Nb ratio (R). The percentage DOM of the gelatin derivatives was tuned between 5 and 15%. Hydrogels prepared with higher DOM cross-linked faster (i.e., 10-20 min) compared to hydrogels prepared with lower DOM (i.e., 60-70 min). A higher DOM and equimolar Tz/Nb ratio R resulted in hydrogels with lower weight variation after immersion in PBS at 37 °C. The mechanical properties of the hydrogels were tuned by varying DOM and R by 1 order of magnitude, achieving elastic modulus E values ranging from 0.5 (low DOM and nonequimolar Tz/Nb ratio) to 5 kPa (high DOM and equimolar Tz/Nb ratio). Human dental pulp stem cells were embedded in the hydrogels and successfully 3D cultured in the hydrogels (percentage viable cells >85%). An increase in metabolic activity and a more elongated cell morphology was detected for cells cultured in hydrogels with lower mechanical properties (E < 1 kPa). Hydrogels prepared with an excess of Tz or Nb were successfully adhered and remained in contact during in vitro cultures, highlighting the potential use of these hydrogels as compartmentalized coculture systems. The successful tuning of the gelatin hydrogel properties here developed by controlling their bioorthogonal cross-linking is promising for tissue engineering and in vitro modeling applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Contessi Negrini
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, White City Campus, 86 Wood Ln, W12 0BZ London, U.K
| | - Ana Angelova Volponi
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, SE1 9RT London, U.K
| | - Paul T Sharpe
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, SE1 9RT London, U.K
| | - Adam D Celiz
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, White City Campus, 86 Wood Ln, W12 0BZ London, U.K
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22
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Rizwan M, Baker AEG, Shoichet MS. Designing Hydrogels for 3D Cell Culture Using Dynamic Covalent Crosslinking. Adv Healthc Mater 2021; 10:e2100234. [PMID: 33987970 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202100234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Designing simple biomaterials to replicate the biochemical and mechanical properties of tissues is an ongoing challenge in tissue engineering. For several decades, new biomaterials have been engineered using cytocompatible chemical reactions and spontaneous ligations via click chemistries to generate scaffolds and water swollen polymer networks, known as hydrogels, with tunable properties. However, most of these materials are static in nature, providing only macroscopic tunability of the scaffold mechanics, and do not reflect the dynamic environment of natural extracellular microenvironment. For more complex applications such as organoids or co-culture systems, there remain opportunities to investigate cells that locally remodel and change the physicochemical properties within the matrices. In this review, advanced biomaterials where dynamic covalent chemistry is used to produce stable 3D cell culture models and high-resolution constructs for both in vitro and in vivo applications, are discussed. The implications of dynamic covalent chemistry on viscoelastic properties of in vitro models are summarized, case studies in 3D cell culture are critically analyzed, and opportunities to further improve the performance of biomaterials for 3D tissue engineering are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Rizwan
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry University of Toronto Toronto Ontario M5S 3E5 Canada
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering University of Toronto Toronto Ontario M5S 3G9 Canada
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research University of Toronto Toronto Ontario M5S 3E1 Canada
| | - Alexander E. G. Baker
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry University of Toronto Toronto Ontario M5S 3E5 Canada
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering University of Toronto Toronto Ontario M5S 3G9 Canada
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research University of Toronto Toronto Ontario M5S 3E1 Canada
| | - Molly S. Shoichet
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry University of Toronto Toronto Ontario M5S 3E5 Canada
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering University of Toronto Toronto Ontario M5S 3G9 Canada
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research University of Toronto Toronto Ontario M5S 3E1 Canada
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23
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Tong Z, Jin L, Oliveira JM, Reis RL, Zhong Q, Mao Z, Gao C. Adaptable hydrogel with reversible linkages for regenerative medicine: Dynamic mechanical microenvironment for cells. Bioact Mater 2021; 6:1375-1387. [PMID: 33210030 PMCID: PMC7658331 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2020.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydrogels are three-dimensional platforms that serve as substitutes for native extracellular matrix. These materials are starting to play important roles in regenerative medicine because of their similarities to native matrix in water content and flexibility. It would be very advantagoues for researchers to be able to regulate cell behavior and fate with specific hydrogels that have tunable mechanical properties as biophysical cues. Recent developments in dynamic chemistry have yielded designs of adaptable hydrogels that mimic dynamic nature of extracellular matrix. The current review provides a comprehensive overview for adaptable hydrogel in regenerative medicine as follows. First, we outline strategies to design adaptable hydrogel network with reversible linkages according to previous findings in supramolecular chemistry and dynamic covalent chemistry. Next, we describe the mechanism of dynamic mechanical microenvironment influence cell behaviors and fate, including how stress relaxation influences on cell behavior and how mechanosignals regulate matrix remodeling. Finally, we highlight techniques such as bioprinting which utilize adaptable hydrogel in regenerative medicine. We conclude by discussing the limitations and challenges for adaptable hydrogel, and we present perspectives for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zongrui Tong
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Lulu Jin
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Joaquim Miguel Oliveira
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017, Barco GMR, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
- The Discoveries Centre for Regenerative and Precision Medicine, Headquarters at University of Minho, Avepark, 4805-017, Barco, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Rui L. Reis
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017, Barco GMR, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
- The Discoveries Centre for Regenerative and Precision Medicine, Headquarters at University of Minho, Avepark, 4805-017, Barco, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Qi Zhong
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Textile Materials & Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education, National Base for International Science and Technology Cooperation in Textiles and Consumer-Goods Chemistry, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, 310018, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhengwei Mao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Changyou Gao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
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24
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Abune L, Wang Y. Affinity Hydrogels for Protein Delivery. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2021; 42:300-312. [PMID: 33632537 PMCID: PMC7954985 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2021.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Proteins have been studied as therapeutic agents for treatment of various human diseases. However, the delivery of protein drugs into the body is challenging. In this review, we summarize and highlight progress in developing affinity hydrogels (i.e., hydrogels functionalized with protein-bound ligands) for controlled protein release. Contrary to traditional hydrogels, which release proteins mainly through diffusion, affinity hydrogels stably retain and sustainably release proteins based mainly on diffusion coupled with a binding reaction. These hydrogels can also be modulated to release proteins in response to defined molecules in a triggered manner. Future research efforts may focus on the development of intelligent affinity hydrogels to mimic the properties of human tissues in sensing different environmental stimuli for on-demand release of single or multiple proteins (i.e., biomimetic intelligence for protein delivery).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidya Abune
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Yong Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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25
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Chiang CW, Hsiao YC, Jheng PR, Chen CH, Manga YB, Lekha R, Chao KM, Ho YC, Chuang EY. Strontium ranelate-laden near-infrared photothermal-inspired methylcellulose hydrogel for arthritis treatment. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2021; 123:111980. [PMID: 33812608 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2021.111980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is of foremost concern among long-term autoimmune disorders, as it leads to inflammation, exudates, chondral degeneration, and painful joints. Because RA severity often fluctuates over time, a local drug delivery method that titrates release of therapeutics to arthritis bioactivity should represent a promising paradigm of RA therapy. Given the local nature of RA chronic illnesses, polysaccharide-drug delivering systems have the promise to augment therapeutic outcomes by offering controlled release of bioactive materials, diminishing the required frequency of administration, and preserving therapeutic levels in affected pathological regions. Herein, an intra-articular photothermal-laden injectable methylcellulose (MC) polymeric hydrogel carrier incorporating strontium ranelate (SrR) and sodium chloride was investigated to resolve these issues. Physicochemical and cellular characteristics of the MC carrier system were thoroughly evaluated. The slow release of SrR, enhancement of the material mechanical strength, and the potential of the non-invasive near-infrared photothermal gel to improve blood circulation and suppress inflammation in a mini-surgical model of RA were examined. Biocompatibility and suppression of intracellular ROS-induced inflammation were observed. This multifunctional photothermal MC hydrogel carrier is anticipated to be an alternative approach for future orthopedic disease treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Wei Chiang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Electronics and Bioinformatics, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan; Department of Orthopedics, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Cheng Hsiao
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Optomechatronics, Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Tissue Engineering, International PhD Program in Biomedical Engineering, School of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Research Center of Biomedical Device, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Ru Jheng
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Optomechatronics, Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Tissue Engineering, International PhD Program in Biomedical Engineering, School of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Research Center of Biomedical Device, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Hwa Chen
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Optomechatronics, Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Tissue Engineering, International PhD Program in Biomedical Engineering, School of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Research Center of Biomedical Device, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan; Department of Orthopedics, , Taipei Medical University-Shuang Ho Hospital, Zhonghe District, New Taipei City, 23561, Taiwan
| | - Yankuba B Manga
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Optomechatronics, Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Tissue Engineering, International PhD Program in Biomedical Engineering, School of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Research Center of Biomedical Device, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - R Lekha
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Optomechatronics, Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Tissue Engineering, International PhD Program in Biomedical Engineering, School of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Research Center of Biomedical Device, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Kun-Mao Chao
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Electronics and Bioinformatics, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan; Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Cheng Ho
- Department of Bioagriculture Science, National Chiayi University, Chiayi, 60004, Taiwan
| | - Er-Yuan Chuang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Optomechatronics, Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Tissue Engineering, International PhD Program in Biomedical Engineering, School of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Research Center of Biomedical Device, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan; Cell Physiology and Molecular Image Research Center, , Taipei Medical University-Wan Fang Hospital, Wenshan District, Taipei, 11696, Taiwan.
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26
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Arkenberg MR, Nguyen HD, Lin CC. Recent advances in bio-orthogonal and dynamic crosslinking of biomimetic hydrogels. J Mater Chem B 2020; 8:7835-7855. [PMID: 32692329 PMCID: PMC7574327 DOI: 10.1039/d0tb01429j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, dynamic, 'click' hydrogels have been applied in numerous biomedical applications. Owing to the mild, cytocompatible, and highly specific reaction kinetics, a multitude of orthogonal handles have been developed for fabricating dynamic hydrogels to facilitate '4D' cell culture. The high degree of tunability in crosslinking reactions of orthogonal 'click' chemistry has enabled a bottom-up approach to install specific biomimicry in an artificial extracellular matrix. In addition to click chemistry, highly specific enzymatic reactions are also increasingly used for network crosslinking and for spatiotemporal control of hydrogel properties. On the other hand, covalent adaptable chemistry has been used to recapitulate the viscoelastic component of biological tissues and for formulating self-healing and shear-thinning hydrogels. The common feature of these three classes of chemistry (i.e., orthogonal click chemistry, enzymatic reactions, and covalent adaptable chemistry) is that they can be carried out under ambient and aqueous conditions, a prerequisite for maintaining cell viability for in situ cell encapsulation and post-gelation modification of network properties. Due to their orthogonality, different chemistries can also be applied sequentially to provide additional biochemical and mechanical control to guide cell behavior. Herein, we review recent advances in the use of orthogonal click chemistry, enzymatic reactions, and covalent adaptable chemistry for the development of dynamically tunable and biomimetic hydrogels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Arkenberg
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
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27
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Hettiaratchi MH, O’Meara MJ, O’Meara TR, Pickering AJ, Letko-Khait N, Shoichet MS. Reengineering biocatalysts: Computational redesign of chondroitinase ABC improves efficacy and stability. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eabc6378. [PMID: 32875119 PMCID: PMC7438101 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abc6378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Maintaining biocatalyst stability and activity is a critical challenge. Chondroitinase ABC (ChABC) has shown promise in central nervous system (CNS) regeneration, yet its therapeutic utility is severely limited by instability. We computationally reengineered ChABC by introducing 37, 55, and 92 amino acid changes using consensus design and forcefield-based optimization. All mutants were more stable than wild-type ChABC with increased aggregation temperatures between 4° and 8°C. Only ChABC with 37 mutations (ChABC-37) was more active and had a 6.5 times greater half-life than wild-type ChABC, increasing to 106 hours (4.4 days) from only 16.8 hours. ChABC-37, expressed as a fusion protein with Src homology 3 (ChABC-37-SH3), was active for 7 days when released from a hydrogel modified with SH3-binding peptides. This study demonstrates the broad opportunity to improve biocatalysts through computational engineering and sets the stage for future testing of this substantially improved protein in the treatment of debilitating CNS injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marian H. Hettiaratchi
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Matthew J. O’Meara
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan, 100 Washtenaw Ave. #2017, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Teresa R. O’Meara
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr., Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
| | - Andrew J. Pickering
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Nitzan Letko-Khait
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Molly S. Shoichet
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3E5, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St., Toronto, ON M5S 3G9, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada
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