Reducing Dietary Acrylamide Exposure from Wheat Products through Crop Management and Imaging

Trends in acrylamide content in selected potato/sweet potato products on the Canadian market

Processed plant-based foods, particularly high carbohydrate-containing foods, are among the greatest contributors to dietary acrylamide, a probable human carcinogen, uptake. Between 2009 and 2020, five surveys were conducted to determine acrylamide in high carbohydrate-containing foods in Canada. These surveys included sampling of potato and sweet potato chips, French fries, and frozen potato/sweet potato products, as a follow-up to our earlier surveys from 2002 - 2008. Samples were analyzed using isotope dilution (13C3-acrylamide) with LC-MS/MS. The highest mean acrylamide levels were found in sweet potato chips. Among potato chips (57 to 4660 ng g-1), one brand consistently showed the highest concentrations with wide variability. Acrylamide concentrations decreased over time in ready-to-eat French fries (from 480 to 358 ng g-1), and one brand showed a clear reduction temporally. Wide variations were observed among brands, among lots/outlets of same brands, and among different food chains. Acrylamide levels in potato chips decreased between 2009 and 2016 (504.3 ng g-1) relative to the period 2002 - 2008 (1096.9 ng g-1). The acrylamide trends observed in the products measured in the latest study indicate that food producers may have adopted mitigation strategies.

Reducing Acrylamide Formation Potential by Targeting Free Asparagine Accumulation in Seeds

Acrylamide is a probable carcinogen in humans and is formed when reducing sugars react with free asparagine (Asn) during thermal processing of food. Although breeding for low reducing sugars worked well in potatoes, it is less successful in cereals. However, reducing free Asn in cereals has great potential for reducing acrylamide formation, despite the role that Asn plays in nitrogen transport and amino acid biosynthesis. In this perspective, we summarize the efforts aimed at reducing free Asn in cereal grains and discuss the potentials and challenges associated with targeting this essential amino acid, especially in a seed-specific manner.

Adding pulse flours to cereal-based snacks and bakery products: An overview of free asparagine quantification methods and mitigation strategies of acrylamide formation in foods

Thermal processing techniques can lead to the formation of heat-induced toxic substances. Acrylamide is one contaminant that has received much scientific attention in recent years, and it is formed essentially during the Maillard reaction when foods rich in carbohydrates, particularly reducing sugars (glucose, fructose), and certain free amino acids, especially asparagine (ASN), are processed at high temperatures (>120°C). The highly variable free ASN concentration in raw materials makes it challenging for food businesses to keep acrylamide content below the European Commission benchmark levels, while avoiding flavor, color, and texture impacts on their products. Free ASN concentrations in crops are affected by environment, genotype, and soil fertilization, which can also influence protein content and amino acid composition. This review aims to provide an overview of free ASN and acrylamide quantification methods and mitigation strategies for acrylamide formation in foods, focusing on adding pulse flours to cereal-based snacks and bakery products. Overall, this review emphasizes the importance of these mitigation strategies in minimizing acrylamide formation in plant-based products and ensuring safer and healthier food options.

Reducing the Risk of Acrylamide and Other Processing Contaminant Formation in Wheat Products

Wheat is a staple crop, consumed worldwide as a major source of starch and protein. Global intake of wheat has increased in recent years, and overall, wheat is considered to be a healthy food, particularly when products are made from whole grains. However, wheat is almost invariably processed before it is consumed, usually via baking and/or toasting, and this can lead to the formation of toxic processing contaminants, including acrylamide, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Acrylamide is principally formed from free (soluble, non-protein) asparagine and reducing sugars (glucose, fructose and maltose) within the Maillard reaction and is classified as a Group 2A carcinogen (probably carcinogenic to humans). It also has neurotoxic and developmental effects at high doses. HMF is also generated within the Maillard reaction but can also be formed via the dehydration of fructose or caramelisation. It is frequently found in bread, biscuits, cookies, and cakes. Its molecular structure points to genotoxicity and carcinogenic risks. PAHs are a large class of chemical compounds, many of which are genotoxic, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic. They are mostly formed during frying, baking and grilling due to incomplete combustion of organic matter. Production of these processing contaminants can be reduced with changes in recipe and processing parameters, along with effective quality control measures. However, in the case of acrylamide and HMF, their formation is also highly dependent on the concentrations of precursors in the grain. Here, we review the synthesis of these contaminants, factors impacting their production and the mitigation measures that can be taken to reduce their formation in wheat products, focusing on the role of genetics and agronomy. We also review the risk management measures adopted by food safety authorities around the world.