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Elayan IA, Brown A. Non-Degenerate Two-Photon Absorption of Fluorescent Protein Chromophores. J Phys Chem A 2024; 128:7511-7523. [PMID: 39192559 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.3c08402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/29/2024]
Abstract
Two-photon absorption (2PA), where a pair of photons are absorbed simultaneously, is recognized as a potent bioimaging technique, which depends on the quantified 2PA probability, defined as cross-section (σ2PA). The absorbed photons either have equivalent (ω1 = ω2) or different frequencies (ω1 ≠ ω2), where the former is degenerate 2PA (D-2PA) and the latter is nondegenerate 2PA (ND-2PA). ND-2PA is of particular interest since it is a promising imaging technology with flexibility of photon frequencies and enhanced cross sections, however, it remains a relatively unexplored area compared to D-2PA. This work utilizes time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) and second-order approximate coupled-cluster with the resolution-of-identity approximation (RI-CC2), for the excitation from S0 to S1, to investigate σD-2PA and σND-2PA of FP chromophore models. Interestingly, comparing CAM-B3LYP with the RI-CC2 computations shows qualitative and, in fact, near quantitative agreement in the computed improvements of σND-2PA for comparable (relative) frequency detunings, despite the known underestimations of 2PA cross sections, for TD-DFT results relative to RI-CC2 values. As expected from the 2-state model, the computed values of σND-2PA are quantitatively larger than σD-2PA, where chromophores with the largest values of σD-2PA show greater potential for σND-2PA improvement. Anionic chromophores demonstrated improvements up to 14%, while substantial enhancements were observed in neutral chromophores with some achieving a 30% increase. This work investigates the ND-2PA photophysical characteristics of FP chromophores and identifies qualitative patterns in the computed properties of ND-2PA relative to D-2PA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismael A Elayan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton T6G 2G2, Alberta, Canada
| | - Alex Brown
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton T6G 2G2, Alberta, Canada
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2
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Aggarwal A, Sunil S, Bendifallah I, Moon M, Drobizhev M, Zarowny L, Zheng J, Wu SY, Lohman AW, Tebo AG, Emiliani V, Podgorski K, Shen Y, Campbell RE. Blue-shifted genetically encoded Ca 2+ indicator with enhanced two-photon absorption. NEUROPHOTONICS 2024; 11:024207. [PMID: 38577628 PMCID: PMC10993905 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.11.2.024207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Significance Genetically encoded calcium ion (Ca 2 + ) indicators (GECIs) are powerful tools for monitoring intracellular Ca 2 + concentration changes in living cells and model organisms. In particular, GECIs have found particular utility for monitoring the transient increase of Ca 2 + concentration that is associated with the neuronal action potential. However, the palette of highly optimized GECIs for imaging of neuronal activity remains relatively limited. Expanding the selection of available GECIs to include new colors and distinct photophysical properties could create new opportunities for in vitro and in vivo fluorescence imaging of neuronal activity. In particular, blue-shifted variants of GECIs are expected to have enhanced two-photon brightness, which would facilitate multiphoton microscopy. Aim We describe the development and applications of T-GECO1-a high-performance blue-shifted GECI based on the Clavularia sp.-derived mTFP1. Approach We use protein engineering and extensive directed evolution to develop T-GECO1. We characterize the purified protein and assess its performance in vitro using one-photon excitation in cultured rat hippocampal neurons, in vivo using one-photon excitation fiber photometry in mice, and ex vivo using two-photon Ca 2 + imaging in hippocampal slices. Results The Ca 2 + -bound state of T-GECO1 has an excitation peak maximum of 468 nm, an emission peak maximum of 500 nm, an extinction coefficient of 49,300 M - 1 cm - 1 , a quantum yield of 0.83, and two-photon brightness approximately double that of EGFP. The Ca 2 + -dependent fluorescence increase is 15-fold, and the apparent K d for Ca 2 + is 82 nM. With two-photon excitation conditions at 850 nm, T-GECO1 consistently enabled the detection of action potentials with higher signal-to-noise (SNR) than a late generation GCaMP variant. Conclusions T-GECO1 is a high-performance blue-shifted GECI that, under two-photon excitation conditions, provides advantages relative to late generation GCaMP variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhi Aggarwal
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- Allen Institute for Neural Dynamics, Seattle, Washington, United States
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, Virginia, United States
- University of Calgary, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Smrithi Sunil
- Allen Institute for Neural Dynamics, Seattle, Washington, United States
| | | | - Michael Moon
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Mikhail Drobizhev
- Montana State University, Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Bozeman, Montana, United States
| | - Landon Zarowny
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jihong Zheng
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, Virginia, United States
| | - Sheng-Yi Wu
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Alexander W. Lohman
- University of Calgary, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Alison G. Tebo
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, Virginia, United States
| | | | - Kaspar Podgorski
- Allen Institute for Neural Dynamics, Seattle, Washington, United States
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, Virginia, United States
| | - Yi Shen
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Robert E. Campbell
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- Université Laval, CERVO Brain Research Center, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Bioinformatics, Québec, Québec, Canada
- University of Tokyo, Department of Chemistry, Tokyo, Japan
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Nasu Y, Aggarwal A, Le GNT, Vo CT, Kambe Y, Wang X, Beinlich FRM, Lee AB, Ram TR, Wang F, Gorzo KA, Kamijo Y, Boisvert M, Nishinami S, Kawamura G, Ozawa T, Toda H, Gordon GR, Ge S, Hirase H, Nedergaard M, Paquet ME, Drobizhev M, Podgorski K, Campbell RE. Lactate biosensors for spectrally and spatially multiplexed fluorescence imaging. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6598. [PMID: 37891202 PMCID: PMC10611801 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42230-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
L-Lactate is increasingly appreciated as a key metabolite and signaling molecule in mammals. However, investigations of the inter- and intra-cellular dynamics of L-lactate are currently hampered by the limited selection and performance of L-lactate-specific genetically encoded biosensors. Here we now report a spectrally and functionally orthogonal pair of high-performance genetically encoded biosensors: a green fluorescent extracellular L-lactate biosensor, designated eLACCO2.1, and a red fluorescent intracellular L-lactate biosensor, designated R-iLACCO1. eLACCO2.1 exhibits excellent membrane localization and robust fluorescence response. To the best of our knowledge, R-iLACCO1 and its affinity variants exhibit larger fluorescence responses than any previously reported intracellular L-lactate biosensor. We demonstrate spectrally and spatially multiplexed imaging of L-lactate dynamics by coexpression of eLACCO2.1 and R-iLACCO1 in cultured cells, and in vivo imaging of extracellular and intracellular L-lactate dynamics in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Nasu
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan.
- PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-0075, Japan.
| | - Abhi Aggarwal
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, 20147, USA
- Allen Institute for Neural Dynamics, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Giang N T Le
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Camilla Trang Vo
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 2200, Denmark
| | - Yuki Kambe
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Science, Kagoshima University, Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima, 890-8544, Japan
| | - Xinxing Wang
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Felix R M Beinlich
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 2200, Denmark
| | - Ashley Bomin Lee
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 2200, Denmark
| | - Tina R Ram
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Fangying Wang
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Kelsea A Gorzo
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Yuki Kamijo
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Marc Boisvert
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Bioinformatics, Laval University, Québec, QC, G1E 1T2, Canada
| | - Suguru Nishinami
- International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
| | - Genki Kawamura
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Takeaki Ozawa
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Toda
- International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
| | - Grant R Gordon
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Shaoyu Ge
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Hajime Hirase
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 2200, Denmark
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, 14642, USA
| | - Maiken Nedergaard
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 2200, Denmark
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, 14642, USA
| | - Marie-Eve Paquet
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Bioinformatics, Laval University, Québec, QC, G1E 1T2, Canada
| | - Mikhail Drobizhev
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, 59717, USA
| | - Kaspar Podgorski
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, 20147, USA
- Allen Institute for Neural Dynamics, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Robert E Campbell
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan.
- CERVO Brain Research Centre, Québec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada.
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Bioinformatics, Laval University, Québec, QC, G1E 1T2, Canada.
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Aggarwal A, Sunil S, Bendifallah I, Moon M, Drobizhev M, Zarowny L, Zheng J, Wu SY, Lohman AW, Tebo AG, Emiliani V, Podgorski K, Shen Y, Campbell RE. A blue-shifted genetically encoded Ca 2+ indicator with enhanced two-photon absorption. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.10.12.562058. [PMID: 37905143 PMCID: PMC10614751 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.12.562058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
Significance Genetically encoded calcium ion (Ca2+) indicators (GECIs) are powerful tools for monitoring intracellular Ca2+ concentration changes in living cells and model organisms. In particular, GECIs have found particular utility for monitoring the transient increase of Ca2+ concentration that is associated with the neuronal action potential. However, the palette of highly optimized GECIs for imaging of neuronal activity remains relatively limited. Expanding the selection of available GECIs to include new colors and distinct photophysical properties could create new opportunities for in vitro and in vivo fluorescence imaging of neuronal activity. In particular, blue-shifted variants of GECIs are expected to have enhanced two-photon brightness, which would facilitate multiphoton microscopy. Aim We describe the development and applications of T-GECO1 - a high-performance blue-shifted GECI based on the Clavularia sp.-derived mTFP1. Approach We used protein engineering and extensive directed evolution to develop T-GECO1. We characterize the purified protein and assess its performance in vitro using one-photon excitation in cultured rat hippocampal neurons, in vivo using one-photon excitation fiber photometry in mice, and ex vivo using two-photon Ca2+ imaging in hippocampal slices. Results The Ca2+-bound state of T-GECO1 has an excitation peak maximum of 468 nm, an emission peak maximum of 500 nm, an extinction coefficient of 49,300 M-1cm-1, a quantum yield of 0.83, and two-photon brightness approximately double that of EGFP. The Ca2+-dependent fluorescence increase is 15-fold and the apparent Kd for Ca2+ is 82 nM. With two-photon excitation conditions at 850 nm, T-GECO1 consistently enabled detection of action potentials with higher signal-to-noise (SNR) than a late generation GCaMP variant. Conclusion T-GECO1 is a high performance blue-shifted GECI that, under two-photon excitation conditions, provides advantages relative to late generation GCaMP variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhi Aggarwal
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- Allen Institute for Neural Dynamics, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, Virginia, United States of America
- University of Calgary, Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy and Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Smrithi Sunil
- Allen Institute for Neural Dynamics, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | | | - Michael Moon
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Mikhail Drobizhev
- Montana State University, Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
| | - Landon Zarowny
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jihong Zheng
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Sheng-Yi Wu
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Alexander W. Lohman
- University of Calgary, Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy and Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Alison G. Tebo
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, Virginia, United States of America
| | | | - Kaspar Podgorski
- Allen Institute for Neural Dynamics, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Yi Shen
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Robert E. Campbell
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- Université Laval, CERVO Brain Research Center and Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Bioinformatics, Québec, Québec, Canada
- The University of Tokyo, Department of Chemistry, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
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Aslopovsky VR, Scherbinin AV, Kleshchina NN, Bochenkova AV. Impact of the Protein Environment on Two-Photon Absorption Cross-Sections of the GFP Chromophore Anion Resolved at the XMCQDPT2 Level of Theory. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11266. [PMID: 37511026 PMCID: PMC10379633 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241411266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The search for fluorescent proteins with large two-photon absorption (TPA) cross-sections and improved brightness is required for their efficient use in bioimaging. Here, we explored the impact of a single-point mutation close to the anionic form of the GFP chromophore on its TPA activity. We considered the lowest-energy transition of EGFP and its modification EGFP T203I. We focused on a methodology for obtaining reliable TPA cross-sections for mutated proteins, based on conformational sampling using molecular dynamics simulations and a high-level XMCQDPT2-based QM/MM approach. We also studied the numerical convergence of the sum-over-states formalism and provide direct evidence for the applicability of the two-level model for calculating TPA cross-sections in EGFP. The calculated values were found to be very sensitive to changes in the permanent dipole moments between the ground and excited states and highly tunable by internal electric field of the protein environment. In the case of the GFP chromophore anion, even a single hydrogen bond was shown to be capable of drastically increasing the TPA cross-section. Such high tunability of the nonlinear photophysical properties of the chromophore anions can be used for the rational design of brighter fluorescent proteins for bioimaging using two-photon laser scanning microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav R Aslopovsky
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1/3, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Andrei V Scherbinin
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1/3, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Nadezhda N Kleshchina
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1/3, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Anastasia V Bochenkova
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1/3, 119991 Moscow, Russia
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Elayan IA, Brown A. Degenerate and non-degenerate two-photon absorption of coumarin dyes. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023. [PMID: 37318284 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp00723e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon absorption (2PA) spectroscopy is a robust bioimaging tool that depends on the determined cross-sections (σ2PA). The absorption of both photons occurs simultaneously with equivalent (degenerate) or different (non-degenerate) photon energies, D-2PA and ND-2PA, respectively. The former has been investigated experimentally and computationally for many systems, while the latter remains relatively unexplored computationally and limited experimentally. In this study, response theory using time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) and the 2-state model (2SM) have been utilized to investigate σD-2PA and σND-2PA for the excitation to the lowest energy singlet state (S1) of coumarin, coumarin 6, coumarin 120, coumarin 307, and coumarin 343. Solvents involved were methanol (MeOH), chloroform (ClForm), and dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), where the latter leads to the largest σ2PA. Values of σ2PA are largest for coumarin 6 and lowest for coumarin, which illustrates the effect of substituents. The 2SM clarifies how the largest cross-sections correspond to molecules with the largest transition dipole moments, μ01. In general, σD-2SM computations agree with σD-2PA. Moreover, σND-2SM are in qualitative agreement with σND-2PA with comparable enhancement relative to σD-2PA. Overall, σND-2PA are larger than σD-2PA where the increase is in the range of 22% to 49%, depending on the coumarin as well as the relative energies of the two photons. This work aids in future investigations into various fluorophores to understand their photophysical properties for ND-2PA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismael A Elayan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G2.
| | - Alex Brown
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G2.
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Sirimatayanant S, Andruniów T. Benchmarking two-photon absorption strengths of rhodopsin chromophore models with CC3 and CCSD methodologies: An assessment of popular density functional approximations. J Chem Phys 2023; 158:094106. [PMID: 36889953 DOI: 10.1063/5.0135594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
This work presents the investigations of the impact of an increasing electron correlation in the hierarchy of coupled-cluster methods, i.e., CC2, CCSD, and CC3, on two-photon absorption (2PA) strengths for the lowest excited state of the minimal rhodopsin's chromophore model-cis-penta-2,4-dieniminium cation (PSB3). For a larger chromophore's model [4-cis-hepta-2,4,6-trieniminium cation (PSB4)], CC2 and CCSD calculations of 2PA strengths were performed. Additionally, 2PA strengths predicted by some popular density functional theory (DFT) functionals differing in HF exchange contribution were assessed against the reference CC3/CCSD data. For PSB3, the accuracy of 2PA strengths increases in the following order: CC2 < CCSD < CC3, with the CC2 deviation from both higher-level methods exceeding 10% at 6-31+G* basis sets and 2% at aug-cc-pVDZ basis set. However, for PSB4, this trend is reversed and CC2-based 2PA strength is larger than the corresponding CCSD value. Among the DFT functionals investigated, CAM-B3LYP and BHandHLYP provide 2PA strengths in best compliance with reference data, however, with the error approaching an order of magnitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saruti Sirimatayanant
- Institute of Advanced Materials, Department of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Tadeusz Andruniów
- Institute of Advanced Materials, Department of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
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Kabir MP, Ouedraogo D, Orozco-Gonzalez Y, Gadda G, Gozem S. Alternative Strategy for Spectral Tuning of Flavin-Binding Fluorescent Proteins. J Phys Chem B 2023; 127:1301-1311. [PMID: 36740810 PMCID: PMC9940217 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.2c06475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
iLOV is an engineered flavin-binding fluorescent protein (FbFP) with applications for in vivo cellular imaging. To expand the range of applications of FbFPs for multicolor imaging and FRET-based biosensing, it is desirable to understand how to modify their absorption and emission wavelengths (i.e., through spectral tuning). There is particular interest in developing FbFPs that absorb and emit light at longer wavelengths, which has proven challenging thus far. Existing spectral tuning strategies that do not involve chemical modification of the flavin cofactor have focused on placing positively charged amino acids near flavin's C4a and N5 atoms. Guided by previously reported electrostatic spectral tunning maps (ESTMs) of the flavin cofactor and by quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical (QM/MM) calculations reported in this work, we suggest an alternative strategy: placing a negatively charged amino acid near flavin's N1 atom. We predict that a single-point mutant, iLOV-Q430E, has a slightly red-shifted absorption and fluorescence maximum wavelength relative to iLOV. To validate our theoretical prediction, we experimentally expressed and purified iLOV-Q430E and measured its spectral properties. We found that the Q430E mutation results in a slight change in absorption and a 4-8 nm red shift in the fluorescence relative to iLOV, in good agreement with the computational predictions. Molecular dynamics simulations showed that the carboxylate side chain of the glutamate in iLOV-Q430E points away from the flavin cofactor, which leads to a future expectation that further red shifting may be achieved by bringing the side chain closer to the cofactor.
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Leben R, Lindquist RL, Hauser AE, Niesner R, Rakhymzhan A. Two-Photon Excitation Spectra of Various Fluorescent Proteins within a Broad Excitation Range. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:13407. [PMID: 36362194 PMCID: PMC9656010 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232113407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 03/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Two-photon excitation fluorescence laser-scanning microscopy is the preferred method for studying dynamic processes in living organ models or even in living organisms. Thanks to near-infrared and infrared excitation, it is possible to penetrate deep into the tissue, reaching areas of interest relevant to life sciences and biomedicine. In those imaging experiments, two-photon excitation spectra are needed to select the optimal laser wavelength to excite as many fluorophores as possible simultaneously in the sample under consideration. The more fluorophores that can be excited, and the more cell populations that can be studied, the better access to their arrangement and interaction can be reached in complex systems such as immunological organs. However, for many fluorophores, the two-photon excitation properties are poorly predicted from the single-photon spectra and are not yet available, in the literature or databases. Here, we present the broad excitation range (760 nm to 1300 nm) of photon-flux-normalized two-photon spectra of several fluorescent proteins in their cellular environment. This includes the following fluorescent proteins spanning from the cyan to the infrared part of the spectrum: mCerulean3, mTurquoise2, mT-Sapphire, Clover, mKusabiraOrange2, mOrange2, LSS-mOrange, mRuby2, mBeRFP, mCardinal, iRFP670, NirFP, and iRFP720.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Leben
- Biophysical Analytics, Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum (DRFZ), 10117 Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Immunology, Center for Infection Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Randall L. Lindquist
- Immune Dynamics and Intravital Microscopy, Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum (DRFZ), 10117 Berlin, Germany
- Praxen für Nuklearmedizin, 12163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anja E. Hauser
- Immune Dynamics and Intravital Microscopy, Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum (DRFZ), 10117 Berlin, Germany
- Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Raluca Niesner
- Biophysical Analytics, Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum (DRFZ), 10117 Berlin, Germany
- Dynamic and Functional In Vivo Imaging, Freie Universität Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Asylkhan Rakhymzhan
- Biophysical Analytics, Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum (DRFZ), 10117 Berlin, Germany
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Wang X, Delle C, Asiminas A, Akther S, Vittani M, Brøgger P, Kusk P, Vo CT, Radovanovic T, Konno A, Hirai H, Fukuda M, Weikop P, Goldman SA, Nedergaard M, Hirase H. Liver-secreted fluorescent blood plasma markers enable chronic imaging of the microcirculation. CELL REPORTS METHODS 2022; 2:100302. [PMID: 36313804 PMCID: PMC9606131 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2022.100302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Studying blood microcirculation is vital for gaining insights into vascular diseases. Blood flow imaging in deep tissue is currently achieved by acute administration of fluorescent dyes in the blood plasma. This is an invasive process, and the plasma fluorescence decreases within an hour of administration. Here, we report an approach for the longitudinal study of vasculature. Using a single intraperitoneal or intravenous administration of viral vectors, we express fluorescent secretory albumin-fusion proteins in the liver to chronically label the blood circulation in mice. This approach allows for longitudinal observation of circulation from 2 weeks to over 4 months after vector administration. We demonstrate the chronic assessment of vascular functions including functional hyperemia and vascular plasticity in micro- and mesoscopic scales. This genetic plasma labeling approach represents a versatile and cost-effective method for the chronic investigation of vasculature functions across the body in health and disease animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Wang
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christine Delle
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Antonis Asiminas
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sonam Akther
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Marta Vittani
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Peter Brøgger
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Peter Kusk
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Camilla Trang Vo
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tessa Radovanovic
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ayumu Konno
- Viral Vector Core, Gunma University Initiative for Advanced Research, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Hirai
- Viral Vector Core, Gunma University Initiative for Advanced Research, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Masahiro Fukuda
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
- International Research Center for Medical Sciences (IRCMS), Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Pia Weikop
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Steven A. Goldman
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Maiken Nedergaard
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Hajime Hirase
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
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11
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Grabarek D, Andruniów T. Quantum chemistry study of the multiphoton absorption in enhanced green fluorescent protein at the single amino acid residue level. Chemphyschem 2022; 23:e202200335. [PMID: 35875840 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.202200335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 07/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The chromophore (CRO) of fluorescent proteins (FPs) is embedded in a complex environment that is a source of specific interactions with the CRO. Understanding how these interactions influence FPs spectral properties is important for a directed design of novel markers with desired characteristics. In this work, we apply computational chemistry methods to gain insight into one-, two- and three-photon absorption (1PA, 2PA, 3PA) tuning in enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP). To achieve this goal, we built EGFP models differing in: i) number and position of hydrogen-bonds (h-bonds) donors to the CRO and ii) the electric field, as approximated by polarizable force field, acting on the CRO. We find that h-bonding to the CRO's phenolate oxygen results in stronger one- and multiphoton absorption. The brighter absorption can be also achieved by creating more positive electric field near the CRO's phenolate moiety. Interestingly, while individual CRO-environment h-bonds usually enhance 1PA and 2PA, it takes a few h-bond donors to enhance 3PA. Clearly, response of the absorption intensity to many-body effects depends on the excitation mechanism. We further employ symmetry-adapted perturbation theory (SAPT) to reveal excellent (2PA) and good (3PA) correlation of multiphoton intensity with electrostatic and induction interaction energies. This points to importance of accounting for mutual CRO-environment polarization in quantitative calculations of absorption spectra in FPs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tadeusz Andruniów
- Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Chemistry, Wyb. Wyspianskiego, 30-516, Wroclaw, POLAND
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12
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Beck C, Gong Y. Engineering rhodopsins' activation spectra using a FRET-based approach. Biophys J 2022; 121:1765-1776. [PMID: 35331688 PMCID: PMC9117881 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2022.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past decade, optogenetics has become a nearly ubiquitous tool in neuroscience because it enables researchers to manipulate neural activity with high temporal resolution and genetic specificity. Rational engineering of optogenetic tools has produced channelrhodopsins with a wide range of kinetics and photocurrent magnitude. Genome mining for previously unidentified species of rhodopsin has uncovered optogenetic tools with diverse spectral sensitivities. However, rational engineering of a rhodopsin has thus far been unable to re-engineer spectral sensitivity while preserving full photocurrent. Here, we developed and characterized ChroME-mTFP, a rhodopsin-fluorescent protein fusion that drives photocurrent through Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET). This FRET-opsin mechanism artificially broadened the activation spectrum of the blue-green-light-activated rhodopsin ChroME by approximately 50 nm, driving higher photocurrent at blue-shifted excitation wavelengths without sacrificing kinetics. The excitation spectra's increase at short wavelengths enabled us to optogenetically excite neurons at lower excitation powers with shorter wavelengths of light. Increasing this rhodopsin's sensitivity to shorter, bluer wavelengths pushes it toward dual-channel, crosstalk-free optogenetic stimulation and imaging with green-light-activated sensors. However, this iteration of FRET-opsin suffers from some imaging-light-induced photocurrent crosstalk from green or yellow light due to maintained, low-efficiency excitation at longer wavelengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connor Beck
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.
| | - Yiyang Gong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.
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13
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Grabarek D, Andruniów T. The role of hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions in enhancing two-photon absorption in green and yellow fluorescent proteins. Chemphyschem 2022; 23:e202200003. [PMID: 35130370 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.202200003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The spectral properties of fluorescent proteins (FPs) depend on the protein environment of the chromophore (CRO). A deeper understanding of the CRO - environment interactions in terms of FPs spectral characteristics will allow for a rational design of novel markers with desired properties. Here, we are taking a step towards achieving this important goal. With the time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT), we calculate one- and two-photon absorption (OPA and TPA) spectra for 5 green FPs (GFPs) and 3 yellow FPs (YFPs) differing in amino acid sequence. The goal is to reveal a role of: (i) electrostatic interactions, (ii) hydrogen-bonds (h-bonds), and (iii) h-bonds together with distant electrostatic field in absorption spectra tuning. Our results point to design hypothesis towards FPs optimised for TPA-based applications. Both h-bonds and electrostatic interactions co-operate in enhancing TPA cross-section (σ TPA ) for the S 0 ->S 1 transition in GFPs. Furthermore, it seems that details of h-bonds network in the CRO's vicinity influences σ TPA response to CRO - environment electrostatic interactions in YFPs. We postulate that engineering FPs with more hydrophilic CRO's environment can lead to greater σ TPA . We also find that removing h-bonds formed with the CRO's phenolate leads to TPA enhancement for transition to higher excited states than S 1 . Particularly Y145 and T203 residues are important in this regard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawid Grabarek
- Department of Chemistry, Advanced Materials Engineering and Modelling Group, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Tadeusz Andruniów
- Department of Chemistry, Advanced Materials Engineering and Modelling Group, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370, Wroclaw, Poland
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14
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Mishra G, Panda BK, Ramirez WA, Jung H, Singh CB, Lee SH, Lee I. Application of SWIR hyperspectral imaging coupled with chemometrics for rapid and non-destructive prediction of Aflatoxin B1 in single kernel almonds. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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15
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Functional Characterization of an In-Frame Deletion in the Basic Domain of the Retinal Transcription Factor ATOH7. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031053. [PMID: 35162975 PMCID: PMC8834682 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Basic helix–loop–helix (bHLH) transcription factors are evolutionarily conserved and structurally similar proteins important in development. The temporospatial expression of atonal bHLH transcription factor 7 (ATOH7) directs the differentiation of retinal ganglion cells and mutations in the human gene lead to vitreoretinal and/or optic nerve abnormalities. Characterization of pathogenic ATOH7 mutations is needed to understand the functions of the conserved bHLH motif. The published ATOH7 in-frame deletion p.(Arg41_Arg48del) removes eight highly conserved amino acids in the basic domain. We functionally characterized the mutant protein by expressing V5-tagged ATOH7 constructs in human embryonic kidney 293T (HEK293T) cells for subsequent protein analyses, including Western blot, cycloheximide chase assays, Förster resonance energy transfer fluorescence lifetime imaging, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and dual-luciferase assays. Our results indicate that the in-frame deletion in the basic domain causes mislocalization of the protein, which can be rescued by a putative dimerization partner transcription factor 3 isoform E47 (E47), suggesting synergistic nuclear import. Furthermore, we observed (i) increased proteasomal degradation of the mutant protein, (ii) reduced protein heterodimerization, (iii) decreased DNA-binding and transcriptional activation of a reporter gene, as well as (iv) inhibited E47 activity. Altogether our observations suggest that the DNA-binding basic domain of ATOH7 has additional roles in regulating the nuclear import, dimerization, and protein stability.
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16
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Nasu Y, Murphy-Royal C, Wen Y, Haidey JN, Molina RS, Aggarwal A, Zhang S, Kamijo Y, Paquet ME, Podgorski K, Drobizhev M, Bains JS, Lemieux MJ, Gordon GR, Campbell RE. A genetically encoded fluorescent biosensor for extracellular L-lactate. Nat Commun 2021; 12:7058. [PMID: 34873165 PMCID: PMC8648760 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-27332-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
L-Lactate, traditionally considered a metabolic waste product, is increasingly recognized as an important intercellular energy currency in mammals. To enable investigations of the emerging roles of intercellular shuttling of L-lactate, we now report an intensiometric green fluorescent genetically encoded biosensor for extracellular L-lactate. This biosensor, designated eLACCO1.1, enables cellular resolution imaging of extracellular L-lactate in cultured mammalian cells and brain tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Nasu
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XDepartment of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033 Japan
| | - Ciaran Murphy-Royal
- grid.22072.350000 0004 1936 7697Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada ,grid.410559.c0000 0001 0743 2111Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal, Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC H2X 0A9 Canada
| | - Yurong Wen
- grid.17089.37Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7 Canada ,grid.452438.c0000 0004 1760 8119Department of Talent Highland, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710061 China
| | - Jordan N. Haidey
- grid.22072.350000 0004 1936 7697Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Rosana S. Molina
- grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA
| | - Abhi Aggarwal
- grid.443970.dJanelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA 20147 USA
| | - Shuce Zhang
- grid.17089.37Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2G2 Canada
| | - Yuki Kamijo
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XDepartment of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033 Japan
| | - Marie-Eve Paquet
- grid.23856.3a0000 0004 1936 8390CERVO Brain Research Center, Laval University, Québec, QC G1E 1T2 Canada ,grid.23856.3a0000 0004 1936 8390Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Bioinformatics, Laval University, Québec, QC G1J 2G3 Canada
| | - Kaspar Podgorski
- grid.443970.dJanelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA 20147 USA
| | - Mikhail Drobizhev
- grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA
| | - Jaideep S. Bains
- grid.22072.350000 0004 1936 7697Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - M. Joanne Lemieux
- grid.17089.37Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7 Canada
| | - Grant R. Gordon
- grid.22072.350000 0004 1936 7697Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1 Canada
| | - Robert E. Campbell
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XDepartment of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033 Japan ,grid.17089.37Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2G2 Canada
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17
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Ákos Z, Dunipace L, Stathopoulos A. NaNuTrap: a technique for in vivo cell nucleus labelling using nanobodies. Development 2021; 148:dev199822. [PMID: 34328170 PMCID: PMC10656463 DOI: 10.1242/dev.199822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In vivo cell labelling is challenging in fast developmental processes because many cell types differentiate more quickly than the maturation time of fluorescent proteins, making visualization of these tissues impossible with standard techniques. Here, we present a nanobody-based method, Nanobody Nuclear Trap (NaNuTrap), which works with the existing Gal4/UAS system in Drosophila and allows for early in vivo cell nuclei labelling independently of the maturation time of the fluorescent protein. This restores the utility of fluorescent proteins that have longer maturation times, such as those used in two-photon imaging, for live imaging of fast or very early developmental processes. We also present a more general application of this system, whereby NaNuTrap can convert cytoplasmic GFP expressed in any existing transgenic fly line into a nuclear label. This nuclear re-localization of the fluorescent signal can improve the utility of the GFP label, e.g. in cell counting, as well as resulting in a general increase in intensity of the live fluorescent signal. We demonstrate these capabilities of NaNuTrap by effectively tracking subsets of cells during the fast movements associated with gastrulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsuzsa Ákos
- California Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Blvd, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Leslie Dunipace
- California Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Blvd, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Angelike Stathopoulos
- California Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Blvd, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
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18
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Zhang D, Redington E, Gong Y. Rational engineering of ratiometric calcium sensors with bright green and red fluorescent proteins. Commun Biol 2021; 4:924. [PMID: 34326458 PMCID: PMC8322158 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02452-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ratiometric genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) record neural activity with high brightness while mitigating motion-induced artifacts. Recently developed ratiometric GECIs primarily employ cyan and yellow-fluorescent fluorescence resonance energy transfer pairs, and thus fall short in some applications that require deep tissue penetration and resistance to photobleaching. We engineered a set of green-red ratiometric calcium sensors that fused two fluorescent proteins and calcium sensing domain within an alternate configuration. The best performing elements of this palette of sensors, Twitch-GR and Twitch-NR, inherited the superior photophysical properties of their constituent fluorescent proteins. These properties enabled our sensors to outperform existing ratiometric calcium sensors in brightness and photobleaching metrics. In turn, the shot-noise limited signal fidelity of our sensors when reporting action potentials in cultured neurons and in the awake behaving mice was higher than the fidelity of existing sensors. Our sensor enabled a regime of imaging that simultaneously captured neural structure and function down to the deep layers of the mouse cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diming Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.
| | - Emily Redington
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Yiyang Gong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.
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19
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Drobizhev M, Molina RS, Callis PR, Scott JN, Lambert GG, Salih A, Shaner NC, Hughes TE. Local Electric Field Controls Fluorescence Quantum Yield of Red and Far-Red Fluorescent Proteins. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:633217. [PMID: 33763453 PMCID: PMC7983054 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.633217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetically encoded probes with red-shifted absorption and fluorescence are highly desirable for imaging applications because they can report from deeper tissue layers with lower background and because they provide additional colors for multicolor imaging. Unfortunately, red and especially far-red fluorescent proteins have very low quantum yields, which undermines their other advantages. Elucidating the mechanism of nonradiative relaxation in red fluorescent proteins (RFPs) could help developing ones with higher quantum yields. Here we consider two possible mechanisms of fast nonradiative relaxation of electronic excitation in RFPs. The first, known as the energy gap law, predicts a steep exponential drop of fluorescence quantum yield with a systematic red shift of fluorescence frequency. In this case the relaxation of excitation occurs in the chromophore without any significant changes of its geometry. The second mechanism is related to a twisted intramolecular charge transfer in the excited state, followed by an ultrafast internal conversion. The chromophore twisting can strongly depend on the local electric field because the field can affect the activation energy. We present a spectroscopic method of evaluating local electric fields experienced by the chromophore in the protein environment. The method is based on linear and two-photon absorption spectroscopy, as well as on quantum-mechanically calculated parameters of the isolated chromophore. Using this method, which is substantiated by our molecular dynamics simulations, we obtain the components of electric field in the chromophore plane for seven different RFPs with the same chromophore structure. We find that in five of these RFPs, the nonradiative relaxation rate increases with the strength of the field along the chromophore axis directed from the center of imidazolinone ring to the center of phenolate ring. Furthermore, this rate depends on the corresponding electrostatic energy change (calculated from the known fields and charge displacements), in quantitative agreement with the Marcus theory of charge transfer. This result supports the dominant role of the twisted intramolecular charge transfer mechanism over the energy gap law for most of the studied RFPs. It provides important guidelines of how to shift the absorption wavelength of an RFP to the red, while keeping its brightness reasonably high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail Drobizhev
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, United States
| | - Rosana S Molina
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, United States
| | - Patrik R Callis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, United States
| | | | - Gerard G Lambert
- Department of Neurosciences, UC San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Anya Salih
- Antares & Fluoresci Research, Dangar Island, NSW, Australia
| | - Nathan C Shaner
- Department of Neurosciences, UC San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Thomas E Hughes
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, United States
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20
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Molina RS, King J, Franklin J, Clack N, McRaven C, Goncharov V, Flickinger D, Svoboda K, Drobizhev M, Hughes TE. High throughput instrument to screen fluorescent proteins under two-photon excitation. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 11:7192-7203. [PMID: 33408990 PMCID: PMC7747914 DOI: 10.1364/boe.409353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon microscopy together with fluorescent proteins and fluorescent protein-based biosensors are commonly used tools in neuroscience. To enhance their experimental scope, it is important to optimize fluorescent proteins for two-photon excitation. Directed evolution of fluorescent proteins under one-photon excitation is common, but many one-photon properties do not correlate with two-photon properties. A simple system for expressing fluorescent protein mutants is E. coli colonies on an agar plate. The small focal volume of two-photon excitation makes creating a high throughput screen in this system a challenge for a conventional point-scanning approach. We present an instrument and accompanying software that solves this challenge by selectively scanning each colony based on a colony map captured under one-photon excitation. This instrument, called the GIZMO, can measure the two-photon excited fluorescence of 10,000 E. coli colonies in 7 hours. We show that the GIZMO can be used to evolve a fluorescent protein under two-photon excitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosana S Molina
- Department of Cell Biology & Neuroscience, Montana State University, 109 Lewis Hall, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Jonathan King
- Vidrio Technologies, LLC, PO Box 1870, Leesburg, VA 20177, USA
| | - Jacob Franklin
- Vidrio Technologies, LLC, PO Box 1870, Leesburg, VA 20177, USA
| | - Nathan Clack
- Vidrio Technologies, LLC, PO Box 1870, Leesburg, VA 20177, USA
| | - Christopher McRaven
- Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
- Current address: Advanced Engineering Laboratory, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 86 Water Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
| | - Vasily Goncharov
- Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
| | | | - Karel Svoboda
- Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
| | - Mikhail Drobizhev
- Department of Cell Biology & Neuroscience, Montana State University, 109 Lewis Hall, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Thomas E Hughes
- Department of Cell Biology & Neuroscience, Montana State University, 109 Lewis Hall, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
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21
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Grabarek D, Andruniów T. What is the Optimal Size of the Quantum Region in Embedding Calculations of Two-Photon Absorption Spectra of Fluorescent Proteins? J Chem Theory Comput 2020; 16:6439-6455. [PMID: 32862643 PMCID: PMC7586329 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.0c00602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
![]()
We
systematically investigate an impact of the size and content
of a quantum (QM) region, treated at the density functional theory
level, in embedding calculations on one- (OPA) and two-photon absorption
(TPA) spectra of the following fluorescent proteins (FPs) models: Aequorea victoria green FP (avGFP) with neutral (avGFP-n)
and anionic (avGFP-a) chromophore as well as Citrine FP. We find that
amino acid (a.a.) residues as well as water molecules hydrogen-bonded
(h-bonded) to the chromophore usually boost both OPA and TPA processes
intensity. The presence of hydrophobic a.a. residues in the quantum
region also non-negligibly affects both absorption spectra but decreases
absorption intensity. We conclude that to reach a quantitative description
of OPA and TPA spectra in multiscale modeling of FPs, the quantum
region should consist of a chromophore and most of a.a. residues and
water molecules in a radius
of 0.30–0.35 nm (ca. 200–230 atoms)
when the remaining part of the system is approximated by the electrostatic
point-charges. The optimal size of the QM region can be reduced to
80–100 atoms by utilizing a more advanced polarizable embedding
model. We also find components of the QM region that are specific
to a FP under study. We propose that the F165 a.a. residue is important
in tuning the TPA spectrum of avGFP-n but not other investigated FPs.
In the case of Citrine, Y203 and M69 a.a. residues must definitely
be part of the QM subsystem. Furthermore, we find that long-range
electrostatic interactions between the QM region and the rest of the
protein cannot be neglected even for the most extensive QM regions
(ca. 350 atoms).
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawid Grabarek
- Advanced Materials Engineering and Modelling Group, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Tadeusz Andruniów
- Advanced Materials Engineering and Modelling Group, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
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McCullock TW, MacLean DM, Kammermeier PJ. Comparing the performance of mScarlet-I, mRuby3, and mCherry as FRET acceptors for mNeonGreen. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0219886. [PMID: 32023253 PMCID: PMC7001971 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) has become an immensely powerful tool to profile intra- and inter-molecular interactions. Through fusion of genetically encoded fluorescent proteins (FPs) researchers have been able to detect protein oligomerization, receptor activation, and protein translocation among other biophysical phenomena. Recently, two bright monomeric red fluorescent proteins, mRuby3 and mScarlet-I, have been developed. These proteins offer much improved physical properties compared to previous generations of monomeric red FPs that should help facilitate more general adoption of Green/Red FRET. Here we assess the ability of these two proteins, along with mCherry, to act as a FRET acceptor for the bright, monomeric, green-yellow FP mNeonGreen using intensiometric FRET and 2-photon Fluorescent Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM) FRET techniques. We first determined that mNeonGreen was a stable donor for 2-photon FLIM experiments under a variety of imaging conditions. We then tested the red FP's ability to act as FRET acceptors using mNeonGreen-Red FP tandem construct. With these constructs we found that mScarlet-I and mCherry are able to efficiently FRET with mNeonGreen in spectroscopic and FLIM FRET. In contrast, mNeonGreen and mRuby3 FRET with a much lower efficiency than predicted in these same assays. We explore possible explanations for this poor performance and determine mRuby3's protein maturation properties are a major contributor. Overall, we find that mNeonGreen is an excellent FRET donor, and both mCherry and mScarlet-I, but not mRuby3, act as practical FRET acceptors, with the brighter mScarlet-I out performing mCherry in intensiometric studies, but mCherry out performing mScarlet-I in instances where consistent efficiency in a population is critical.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler W. McCullock
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, United States of America
| | - David M. MacLean
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, United States of America
| | - Paul J. Kammermeier
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, United States of America
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23
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Bader TK, Xu F, Hodny MH, Blank DA, Distefano MD. Methoxy-Substituted Nitrodibenzofuran-Based Protecting Group with an Improved Two-Photon Action Cross-Section for Thiol Protection in Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis. J Org Chem 2020; 85:1614-1625. [PMID: 31891500 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.9b02751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Photoremovable caging groups are useful for biological applications because the deprotection process can be initiated by illumination with light without the necessity of adding additional reagents such as acids or bases that can perturb biological activity. In solid phase peptide synthesis (SPPS), the most common photoremovable group used for thiol protection is the o-nitrobenzyl group and related analogues. In earlier work, we explored the use of the nitrodibenzofuran (NDBF) group for thiol protection and found it to exhibit a faster rate toward UV photolysis relative to simple nitroveratryl-based protecting groups and a useful two-photon cross-section. Here, we describe the synthesis of a new NDBF-based protecting group bearing a methoxy substituent and use it to prepare a protected form of cysteine suitable for SPPS. This reagent was then used to assemble two biologically relevant peptides and characterize their photolysis kinetics in both UV- and two-photon-mediated reactions; a two-photon action cross-section of 0.71-1.4 GM for the new protecting group was particularly notable. Finally, uncaging of these protected peptides by either UV or two-photon activation was used to initiate their subsequent enzymatic processing by the enzyme farnesyltransferase. These experiments highlight the utility of this new protecting group for SPPS and biological experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taysir K Bader
- Department of Chemistry , University of Minnesota , Minneapolis , Minnesota 55455 , United States
| | - Feng Xu
- Department of Chemistry , University of Minnesota , Minneapolis , Minnesota 55455 , United States
| | - Michael H Hodny
- Department of Chemistry , University of Minnesota , Minneapolis , Minnesota 55455 , United States
| | - David A Blank
- Department of Chemistry , University of Minnesota , Minneapolis , Minnesota 55455 , United States
| | - Mark D Distefano
- Department of Chemistry , University of Minnesota , Minneapolis , Minnesota 55455 , United States
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24
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Lin CY, Romei MG, Oltrogge LM, Mathews II, Boxer SG. Unified Model for Photophysical and Electro-Optical Properties of Green Fluorescent Proteins. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:15250-15265. [PMID: 31450887 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b07152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Green fluorescent proteins (GFPs) have become indispensable imaging and optogenetic tools. Their absorption and emission properties can be optimized for specific applications. Currently, no unified framework exists to comprehensively describe these photophysical properties, namely the absorption maxima, emission maxima, Stokes shifts, vibronic progressions, extinction coefficients, Stark tuning rates, and spontaneous emission rates, especially one that includes the effects of the protein environment. In this work, we study the correlations among these properties from systematically tuned GFP environmental mutants and chromophore variants. Correlation plots reveal monotonic trends, suggesting that all these properties are governed by one underlying factor dependent on the chromophore's environment. By treating the anionic GFP chromophore as a mixed-valence compound existing as a superposition of two resonance forms, we argue that this underlying factor is defined as the difference in energy between the two forms, or the driving force, which is tuned by the environment. We then introduce a Marcus-Hush model with the bond length alternation vibrational mode, treating the GFP absorption band as an intervalence charge transfer band. This model explains all of the observed strong correlations among photophysical properties; related subtopics are extensively discussed in the Supporting Information. Finally, we demonstrate the model's predictive power by utilizing the additivity of the driving force. The model described here elucidates the role of the protein environment in modulating the photophysical properties of the chromophore, providing insights and limitations for designing new GFPs with desired phenotypes. We argue that this model should also be generally applicable to both biological and nonbiological polymethine dyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Yun Lin
- Department of Chemistry , Stanford University , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
| | - Matthew G Romei
- Department of Chemistry , Stanford University , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
| | - Luke M Oltrogge
- Department of Chemistry , Stanford University , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
| | - Irimpan I Mathews
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource , 2575 Sand Hill Road , Menlo Park , California 94025 , United States
| | - Steven G Boxer
- Department of Chemistry , Stanford University , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
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25
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Molina RS, Qian Y, Wu J, Shen Y, Campbell RE, Drobizhev M, Hughes TE. Understanding the Fluorescence Change in Red Genetically Encoded Calcium Ion Indicators. Biophys J 2019; 116:1873-1886. [PMID: 31054773 PMCID: PMC6531872 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2019.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
For over 20 years, genetically encoded Ca2+ indicators have illuminated dynamic Ca2+ signaling activity in living cells and, more recently, whole organisms. We are just now beginning to understand how they work. Various fluorescence colors of these indicators have been developed, including red. Red ones are promising because longer wavelengths of light scatter less in tissue, making it possible to image deeper. They are engineered from a red fluorescent protein that is circularly permuted and fused to a Ca2+-sensing domain. When Ca2+ binds, a conformational change in the sensing domain causes a change in fluorescence. Three factors can contribute to this fluorescence change: 1) a shift in the protonation equilibrium of the chromophore, 2) a change in fluorescence quantum yield, and 3) a change in the extinction coefficient or the two-photon cross section, depending on if it is excited with one or two photons. Here, we conduct a systematic study of the photophysical properties of a range of red Ca2+ indicators to determine which factors are the most important. In total, we analyzed nine indicators, including jRGECO1a, K-GECO1, jRCaMP1a, R-GECO1, R-GECO1.2, CAR-GECO1, O-GECO1, REX-GECO1, and a new variant termed jREX-GECO1. We find that these could be separated into three classes that each rely on a particular set of factors. Furthermore, in some cases, the magnitude of the change in fluorescence was larger with two-photon excitation compared to one-photon because of a change in the two-photon cross section, by up to a factor of two.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosana S Molina
- Department of Cell Biology & Neuroscience, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana
| | - Yong Qian
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jiahui Wu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Yi Shen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Robert E Campbell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; Department of Chemistry, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mikhail Drobizhev
- Department of Cell Biology & Neuroscience, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana
| | - Thomas E Hughes
- Department of Cell Biology & Neuroscience, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana.
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26
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Grabarek D, Andruniów T. Assessment of Functionals for TDDFT Calculations of One- and Two-Photon Absorption Properties of Neutral and Anionic Fluorescent Proteins Chromophores. J Chem Theory Comput 2018; 15:490-508. [PMID: 30485096 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.8b00769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Performance of DFT functionals with different percentages of exact Hartree-Fock exchange energy (EX) is assessed for recovery of the CC2 reference one- (OPA) and two-photon absorption (TPA) spectra of fluorescent proteins chromophores in vacuo. The investigated DFT functionals, together with their EX contributions are BLYP (0%), B3LYP (20%), B1LYP (25%), BHandHLYP (50%), and CAM-B3LYP (19% at short range and 65% at long range). Our test set consists of anionic and neutral chromophores as naturally occurring in the fluorescent proteins. For the first time, we compare TDDFT and CC2 methods for higher excited states than the S1 state, exhibiting relatively large TPA intensity. Our TDDFT results for neutral chromophores reveal an increase in excitation energies as well as TPA and OPA intensities errors, compared to CC2-derived results, as the DFT functional contains less exact exchange. The long-range-corrected CAM-B3LYP functional performs the best, closely followed by BHandHLYP, while BLYP usually significantly underestimates all investigated spectral properties, hence being the worst in reproducing the reference CC2 results. The hybrid B3LYP and B1LYP functionals can be roughly placed in between. We propose that TDDFT may underestimate the TPA intensities for neutral chromophores of fluorescent proteins due to underestimated oscillator strengths between some excited states. In the case of anionic chromophores, we find that B3LYP and B1LYP functionals overcome others in terms of reproducing CC2 excitation energies. On the other hand, however, TPA intensity is usually significantly underestimated, and in this respect, CAM-B3LYP functional seems to be again superior. In contrast to the case of neutral chromophores, it seems that a large magnitude of excited-state dipole moments or changes in dipole moments upon excitation may be the driving force behind high TPA transition moments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawid Grabarek
- Advanced Materials Engineering and Modelling Group , Wroclaw University of Science and Technology , Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27 , 50-370 Wroclaw , Poland
| | - Tadeusz Andruniów
- Advanced Materials Engineering and Modelling Group , Wroclaw University of Science and Technology , Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27 , 50-370 Wroclaw , Poland
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27
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Platisa J, Pieribone VA. Genetically encoded fluorescent voltage indicators: are we there yet? Curr Opin Neurobiol 2018; 50:146-153. [PMID: 29501950 PMCID: PMC5984684 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2018.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Revised: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In order to understand how brain activity produces adaptive behavior we need large-scale, high-resolution recordings of neuronal activity. Fluorescent genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) offer the potential for these recordings to be performed chronically from targeted cells in a minimally invasive manner. As the number of GEVIs successfully tested for in vivo use grows, so has the number of open questions regarding the improvements that would facilitate broad adoption of this technology that surpasses mere 'proof of principle' studies. Our aim in this review is not to provide a status check of the current state of the field, as excellent publications covering this topic already exist. Here, we discuss specific questions regarding GEVI development and application that we think are crucial in achieving this goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Platisa
- The John B. Pierce Laboratory, Inc., New Haven, CT 06519, United States; Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, United States.
| | - Vincent A Pieribone
- The John B. Pierce Laboratory, Inc., New Haven, CT 06519, United States; Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, United States; Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, United States
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