1
|
Kou W, Zhang J, Wang C, Wu W, Zhang J, Yang Z, Dai K, Wang J. Oriented Crystal Growth of Li 0.33La 0.557TiO 3 Nanowire Induced by One-Dimensional Polymer Sheath toward Rapid Lithium-Ion Transfer. ACS NANO 2024. [PMID: 39324749 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.4c09863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/27/2024]
Abstract
Superionic conductor-based solid-state electrolytes with preferred crystal structures hold great promise for realizing ultrafast lithium-ion (Li+) transfer, which is urgently desired for all-solid-state lithium batteries. However, the precise control of crystal growth of superionic conductors is still challenging since the crystals always spontaneously grow to disordered structures with the lowest internal energy to ensure thermodynamic stability. Herein, a coaxial nanowire with a polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) sheath and a Li0.33La0.557TiO3 (LLTO) precursor core (PVP/LLTO-caNW) is prepared through coaxial electrospinning, followed by sintering into LLTO nanowire with an oriented crystal structure (LLTO-caNW). We demonstrate that the one-dimensional PVP sheath as a sacrificial layer generates uniform and the strongest adsorption ability on the (110) phase among different LLTO crystal planes, which induces the crystal to preferentially grow along the c-axis (the fastest Li+ transfer direction) during the nucleation and growth processes. As a result, the prepared LLTO-caNW displays an ultrahigh bulk ionic conductivity of 3.13 × 10-3 S cm-1, exceeding most LLTO crystals and approaching the theoretical conductivity. Meanwhile, the oriented crystal growth imparts to LLTO-caNW significantly reduced grain boundary resistance, and the grain-boundary conductivity reaches up to 1.09 × 10-3 S cm-1. This endows the composite solid electrolyte with high ionic conduction performance and superior cycle stability in the assembled all-solid-state lithium battery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weijie Kou
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, P. R. China
- Zhongyuan Critical Metals Laboratory, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, P. R. China
| | - Junmei Zhang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, P. R. China
| | - Chenye Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, P. R. China
| | - Wenjia Wu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, P. R. China
- Zhongyuan Critical Metals Laboratory, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, P. R. China
| | - Jie Zhang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, P. R. China
| | - Zhirong Yang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, P. R. China
| | - Kun Dai
- Zhongyuan Critical Metals Laboratory, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, P. R. China
| | - Jingtao Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, P. R. China
- The Key Lab of Critical Metals Minerals Supernormal Enrichment and Extraction, Ministry of Education, Zhengzhou 450001, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jin Y, Lin R, Li Y, Zhang X, Tan S, Shuai Y, Xiong Y. Revealing the Influence of Electron Migration Inside Polymer Electrolyte on Li + Transport and Interphase Reconfiguration for Li Metal Batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202403661. [PMID: 38613727 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202403661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024]
Abstract
The development of highly producible and interfacial compatible in situ polymerized electrolytes for solid-state lithium metal batteries (SSLMBs) have been plagued by insufficient transport kinetics and uncontrollable dendrite propagation. Herein, we seek to explore a rationally designed nanofiber architecture to balance all the criteria of SSLMBs, in which La0.6Sr0.4CoO3-δ (LSC) enriched with high valence-state Co species and oxygen vacancies is developed as electronically conductive nanofillers embedded within ZnO/Zn3N2-functionalized polyimide (Zn-PI) nanofiber framework for the first time, to establish Li+ transport highways for poly vinylene carbonate (PVC) electrolyte and eliminate nonuniform Li deposits. Revealed by characterization and theoretical calculation under electric field, the positive-negative electrical dipole layer in LSC derived from electron migration between Co and O atoms aids in accelerating Li+ diffusion kinetics through densified electric field around filler particle, featuring a remarkable ionic conductivity of 1.50 mS cm-1 at 25 °C and a high Li+ transference number of 0.91 without the risk of electron leakage. Integrating with the preferential sacrifice of ZnO/Zn3N2 on PI nanofiber upon immediate detection of dendritic Li, which takes part in reconfiguring hierarchical SEI chemistry dominated by LixNy/Li-Zn alloy inner layer and LiF outer layer, SSLMBs are further endowed with prolonged cycling lifespan and exceptional rate capability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yingmin Jin
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and Storage, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Ruifan Lin
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and Storage, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Yumeng Li
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and Storage, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Xuebai Zhang
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and Storage, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Siping Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Chemical Power Sources, Guizhou Meiling Power Sources Co. Ltd., Zunyi, Guizhou, 563003, China
| | - Yong Shuai
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Thermophysics of MIIT, School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Yueping Xiong
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and Storage, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jin Y, Li Y, Lin R, Zhang X, Shuai Y, Xiong Y. In Situ Constructing Robust and Highly Conductive Solid Electrolyte with Tailored Interfacial Chemistry for Durable Li Metal Batteries. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2307942. [PMID: 38054774 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202307942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Employing nanofiber framework for in situ polymerized solid-state lithium metal batteries (SSLMBs) is impeded by the insufficient Li+ transport properties and severe dendritic Li growth. Both critical issues originate from the shortage of Li+ conduction highways and nonuniform Li+ flux, as randomly-scattered nanofiber backbone is highly prone to slippage during battery assembly. Herein, a robust fabric of Li0.33La0.56Ce0.06Ti0.94O3-δ/polyacrylonitrile framework (p-LLCTO/PAN) with inbuilt Li+ transport channels and high interfacial Li+ flux is reported to manipulate the critical current density of SSLMBs. Upon the merits of defective LLCTO fillers, TFSI- confinement and linear alignment of Li+ conduction pathways are realized inside 1D p-LLCTO/PAN tunnels, enabling remarkable ionic conductivity of 1.21 mS cm-1 (26 °C) and tLi+ of 0.93 for in situ polymerized polyvinylene carbonate (PVC) electrolyte. Specifically, molecular reinforcement protocol on PAN framework further rearranges the Li+ highway distribution on Li metal and alters Li dendrite nucleation pattern, boosting a homogeneous Li deposition behavior with favorable SEI interface chemistry. Accordingly, excellent capacity retention of 76.7% over 1000 cycles at 2 C for Li||LiFePO4 battery and 76.2% over 500 cycles at 1 C for Li||LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 battery are delivered by p-LLCTO/PAN/PVC electrolyte, presenting feasible route in overcoming the bottleneck of dendrite penetration in in situ polymerized SSLMBs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yingmin Jin
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and Storage, School of Chemistry and chemical engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, P. R. China
| | - Yumeng Li
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and Storage, School of Chemistry and chemical engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, P. R. China
| | - Ruifan Lin
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and Storage, School of Chemistry and chemical engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, P. R. China
| | - Xuebai Zhang
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and Storage, School of Chemistry and chemical engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, P. R. China
| | - Yong Shuai
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Thermophysics of MIIT, School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, P. R. China
| | - Yueping Xiong
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and Storage, School of Chemistry and chemical engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Liu J, Lin H, Li H, Zhao D, Liu W, Tao X. In Situ Polymerization Derived from PAN-Based Porous Membrane Realizing Double-Stabilized Interface and High Ionic Conductivity for Lithium-Metal Batteries. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024. [PMID: 38605517 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c04581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
Polymer polyacrylonitrile (PAN), with exceptional mechanical strength and ionic conductivity, is considered a potential electrolyte. However, the huge interfacial impedance of PAN-derived C≡N polar nitrile groups and Li anode limited its application. In this study, a double-stabilized interface was integrated by in situ polymerization of DOL between electrodes and a three-dimensional (3D) porous PAN polymer matrix containing SN plasticizer and LLZTO ceramic fillers to optimize the challenge of interfacial instability. The fabricated PDOL-PAN(SN/LLZTO)-PDOL composite solid electrolyte (CSE) exhibited the maximum ionic conductivities of 1.9 × 10-3 S cm-1 at room temperature and 2.5 × 10-3 S cm-1 at 60 °C, an electrochemical stability window (ESW) of 4.9 V, and a high Li+ transference number (tLi+) of 0.65. In addition, the side reactions of the PAN/Li metal were effectively prevented by inserting PDOL between the 3D porous membrane and Li electrode. Benefiting from the superior interface compatibility and ion conductivity, the Li symmetric battery showed more than 2000 h of cyclability. The solid Li/LiFePO4 full battery delivered excellent cycling performance, showing an original specific capacity of 136.2 mAh g-1 with a capacity retention of 90.1% after 350 cycles at 1C and 60 °C. Furthermore, the cycling of solid-state Li/NCM622 batteries also proved their application potential. This work presents an effective approach to solving interface problems of the PAN electrolyte for solid lithium-metal batteries (LMBs).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Husitu Lin
- Key Laboratory of Carbon Fiber and Functional Polymers of Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Haotong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Dianfa Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Carbon Fiber and Functional Polymers of Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xia Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Beijing 100029, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Fei F, Zhang H, Deng J, Xu H, Xie J, Mohamed HSH, Abdelmaoula AE, Mai L, Xu L. Hydrogen Bonding Induced Confinement Effect between Ultrafine Nanowires and Polymer Chains for Low-Energy-Barrier Ion Transport in Composite Electrolytes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023. [PMID: 37318982 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c03771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Achieving low-energy-barrier lithium ion transport is a fundamental issue for composite solid-state electrolytes (CSEs) in all-solid-state lithium metal batteries (ASSLMBs). In this work, a hydrogen bonding induced confinement strategy was proposed to construct confined template channels for low-energy-barrier lithium ion continuous transport. Specifically, the ultrafine boehmite nanowires (BNWs) with 3.7 nm diameter were synthesized and superiorly dispersed in a polymer matrix to form a flexible CSE. The ultrafine BNWs with large specific surface areas and abundant oxygen vacancies assist the dissociation of lithium salts and confine the conformation of polymer chain segments by hydrogen bonding between the BNWs and the polymer matrix, thus forming a polymer/ultrafine nanowire intertwined structure as template channels for dissociated lithium ions continuous transport. As a result, the as-prepared electrolytes displayed a satisfactory ionic conductivity of 0.714 mS cm-1 and low energy barrier (16.30 kJ mol-1), and the assembled ASSLMB delivered excellent specific capacity retention (92.8%) after 500 cycles. This work demonstrates a promising way to design CSEs with high ionic conductivity for high-performance ASSLMBs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fan Fei
- Hubei Longzhong Laboratory, Wuhan University of Technology (Xiangyang Demonstration Zone), Xiangyang 441000, Hubei, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Materials Synthesis and Processing, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, Hubei, P. R. China
| | - Hong Zhang
- Hubei Longzhong Laboratory, Wuhan University of Technology (Xiangyang Demonstration Zone), Xiangyang 441000, Hubei, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Materials Synthesis and Processing, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, Hubei, P. R. China
| | - Jiahui Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Materials Synthesis and Processing, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, Hubei, P. R. China
| | - Hantao Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Materials Synthesis and Processing, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, Hubei, P. R. China
| | - Jun Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, Hubei, P. R. China
| | - Hemdan S H Mohamed
- Physics Department, Faculty of Science, Fayoum University, Fayoum, 63514, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Eissa Abdelmaoula
- Mining and Metallurgical Department, Faculty of Engineering, Al-Azhar University, Al Mokhaym Al Daem, Naser City, Cairo 11884, Egypt
| | - Liqiang Mai
- Hubei Longzhong Laboratory, Wuhan University of Technology (Xiangyang Demonstration Zone), Xiangyang 441000, Hubei, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Materials Synthesis and Processing, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, Hubei, P. R. China
- Hainan Institute, Wuhan University of Technology, Sanya 572000, P. R. China
| | - Lin Xu
- Hubei Longzhong Laboratory, Wuhan University of Technology (Xiangyang Demonstration Zone), Xiangyang 441000, Hubei, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Materials Synthesis and Processing, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, Hubei, P. R. China
- Hainan Institute, Wuhan University of Technology, Sanya 572000, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Nguyen AG, Park CJ. Insights into tailoring composite solid polymer electrolytes for solid-state lithium batteries. J Memb Sci 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2023.121552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
|
7
|
MOF lamellar membrane-derived LLTO solid state electrolyte for high lithium ion conduction. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2022.121041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
8
|
Li Y, Tang M, Xu S, Zhang S, Zhai Y, Yin J, Zou Z. Enhanced ionic conductivity of composite solid electrolyte by directionally ordered structures of linear Li1.3Al0.3Ti1.7(PO4)3. J IND ENG CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2022.06.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
9
|
Tong X, Liu S, Zhao Y, Huang L, Crittenden J, Chen Y. MXene Composite Membranes with Enhanced Ion Transport and Regulated Ion Selectivity. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:8964-8974. [PMID: 35647940 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c01765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Two-dimensional (2D) material-based membranes are promising candidates for various separation applications. However, the further enhancement of membrane ion conductance is difficult, and the regulation of membrane ion selectivity remains a challenge. Here, we demonstrate the facile fabrication of MXene composite membranes by incorporating spacing agents that contain SO3H groups into the MXene interlayers. The synthesized membrane shows enhanced ion conductance and ion selectivity. Subsequently, the membranes are utilized for salinity gradient power (SGP) generation and lithium-ion (Li+) recovery. The membrane containing poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) (PSS) as the spacing agent shows a much higher power density for SGP generation as compared to the pristine MXene membrane. Using artificial seawater and river water, the power density reaches 1.57 W/m2 with a testing area of 0.24 mm2. Also, the same membrane shows Li+/Na+ and Li+/K+ selectivities of 2.5 and 3.2, respectively. The incorporation of PSS increases both the size and charge density of the nanochannels inside the membrane, which is beneficial for ion conduction. In addition, the density functional theory (DFT) calculation shows that the binding energy between Li+ and the SO3H group is lower than other alkali ion metals, and this might be one major reason why the membrane possesses high Li+ selectivity. This study demonstrates that incorporating spacing agents into the 2D material matrix is a viable strategy to enhance the performance of the 2D material-based membranes. The results from this study can inspire new membrane designs for emerging applications including energy harvesting and monovalent ion recovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Tong
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
- Brook Byers Institute for Sustainable Systems, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Su Liu
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
- Brook Byers Institute for Sustainable Systems, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Yangying Zhao
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Lei Huang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - John Crittenden
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
- Brook Byers Institute for Sustainable Systems, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Yongsheng Chen
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Maia BA, Magalhães N, Cunha E, Braga MH, Santos RM, Correia N. Designing Versatile Polymers for Lithium-Ion Battery Applications: A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:403. [PMID: 35160393 PMCID: PMC8839412 DOI: 10.3390/polym14030403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Solid-state electrolytes are a promising family of materials for the next generation of high-energy rechargeable lithium batteries. Polymer electrolytes (PEs) have been widely investigated due to their main advantages, which include easy processability, high safety, good mechanical flexibility, and low weight. This review presents recent scientific advances in the design of versatile polymer-based electrolytes and composite electrolytes, underlining the current limitations and remaining challenges while highlighting their technical accomplishments. The recent advances in PEs as a promising application in structural batteries are also emphasized.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Arouca Maia
- Materials and Composite Structures Unit, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering (INEGI), 4000-014 Porto, Portugal; (B.A.M.); (N.M.); (R.M.S.); (N.C.)
- LAETA—Associated Laboratory of Energy, Transports and Aeronautics, 4200-265 Porto, Portugal;
- Chemical Engineering Department, FEUP—Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-265 Porto, Portugal
| | - Natália Magalhães
- Materials and Composite Structures Unit, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering (INEGI), 4000-014 Porto, Portugal; (B.A.M.); (N.M.); (R.M.S.); (N.C.)
| | - Eunice Cunha
- Materials and Composite Structures Unit, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering (INEGI), 4000-014 Porto, Portugal; (B.A.M.); (N.M.); (R.M.S.); (N.C.)
| | - Maria Helena Braga
- LAETA—Associated Laboratory of Energy, Transports and Aeronautics, 4200-265 Porto, Portugal;
- Engineering Physics Department, FEUP—Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-265 Porto, Portugal
| | - Raquel M. Santos
- Materials and Composite Structures Unit, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering (INEGI), 4000-014 Porto, Portugal; (B.A.M.); (N.M.); (R.M.S.); (N.C.)
- LAETA—Associated Laboratory of Energy, Transports and Aeronautics, 4200-265 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Nuno Correia
- Materials and Composite Structures Unit, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering (INEGI), 4000-014 Porto, Portugal; (B.A.M.); (N.M.); (R.M.S.); (N.C.)
- LAETA—Associated Laboratory of Energy, Transports and Aeronautics, 4200-265 Porto, Portugal;
| |
Collapse
|