1
|
Vilanova A, Dias P, Lopes T, Mendes A. The route for commercial photoelectrochemical water splitting: a review of large-area devices and key upscaling challenges. Chem Soc Rev 2024; 53:2388-2434. [PMID: 38288870 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs01069g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Green-hydrogen is considered a "key player" in the energy market for the upcoming decades. Among currently available hydrogen (H2) production processes, photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting has one of the lowest environmental impacts. However, it still presents prohibitively high production costs compared to more mature technologies, such as steam methane reforming. Therefore, the competitiveness of PEC water splitting must rely on its environmental and functional advantages, which are strongly linked to the reactor design, to the intrinsic properties of its components, and to their successful upscaling. This review gives special attention to the engineering aspects and categorizes PEC devices into four main types, according to the configuration of electrodes and strategies for gas separation: wired back-to-back, wireless back-to-back, wired side-by-side, and wired separated electrode membrane-free. Independently of the device architecture, the use of concentrated sunlight was found to be mandatory for achieving competitive green-H2 production. Additionally, feasible strategies for upscaling the key components of PEC devices, especially photoelectrodes, are urgently needed. In a pragmatic context, the way to move forward is to accept that PEC devices will operate close to their thermodynamic limits at large-scale, which requires a solid convergence between academics and industry. Research efforts must be redirected to: (i) build and demonstrate modular devices with a low-cost and highly recyclable embodiment; (ii) optimize thermal and power management; (iii) reduce ohmic losses; (iv) enhance the chemical stability towards a thousand hours; (v) couple solar concentrators with PEC devices; (vi) boost PEC-H2 production through the use of organic compounds; and (vii) reach consensual standardized methods for evaluating PEC devices, at both environmental and techno-economic levels. If these targets are not met in the next few years, the feasibility of PEC-H2 production and its acceptance by industry and by the general public will be seriously compromised.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- António Vilanova
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
- INL - International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Avenida Mestre José Veiga, 4715-330, Braga, Portugal
| | - Paula Dias
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Tânia Lopes
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Adélio Mendes
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Isotta E, Mukherjee B, Bette S, Dinnebier R, Scardi P. Static and dynamic components of Debye-Waller coefficients in the novel cubic polymorph of low-temperature disordered Cu 2ZnSnS 4. IUCRJ 2022; 9:272-285. [PMID: 35371505 PMCID: PMC8895019 DOI: 10.1107/s2052252522000239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) is an attractive material for sustainable photovoltaics and thermoelectrics, and several properties originate from its marked polymorphism. High-energy mechanical alloying is found to lead to a disordered phase that possesses a sphalerite-like cubic structure. This is investigated in detail with the aid of laboratory and synchrotron radiation X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, electron microscopy and ab initio molecular dynamics. The disordered cubic polymorph is preserved below 663 K. With thermal treatments above 663 K, the tetragonal kesterite phase forms, used here as a reference for structural and microstructural features. Particular attention is paid to the stacking arrangement: a significant fraction of twin faults was found in the disordered cubic samples, which then progressively annealed with domain growth and with the transition to the ordered tetragonal phase. This study also focuses on Debye-Waller coefficients, which were found to be considerably larger for the disordered cubic than the tetragonal sample. Indeed, disorder leads to an ∼1 Å2 upward shift through the temperature range 100-700 K, a feature confirmed by ab initio calculations, which points to a particularly high contribution from disordered Sn cations. This supports the general understanding that structural disorder introduces a temperature-independent static contribution to the atomic mean-square displacement. Debye-Waller coefficients are found to be a good measure of this disorder, known to have a critical effect on transport properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Isotta
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, 77 via Mesiano, Trento 38123, Italy
| | - Binayak Mukherjee
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, 77 via Mesiano, Trento 38123, Italy
| | - Sebastian Bette
- Max-Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Stuttgart Germany
| | - Robert Dinnebier
- Max-Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Stuttgart Germany
| | - Paolo Scardi
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, 77 via Mesiano, Trento 38123, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Hadke S, Huang M, Chen C, Tay YF, Chen S, Tang J, Wong L. Emerging Chalcogenide Thin Films for Solar Energy Harvesting Devices. Chem Rev 2021; 122:10170-10265. [PMID: 34878268 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Chalcogenide semiconductors offer excellent optoelectronic properties for their use in solar cells, exemplified by the commercialization of Cu(In,Ga)Se2- and CdTe-based photovoltaic technologies. Recently, several other chalcogenides have emerged as promising photoabsorbers for energy harvesting through the conversion of solar energy to electricity and fuels. The goal of this review is to summarize the development of emerging binary (Sb2X3, GeX, SnX), ternary (Cu2SnX3, Cu2GeX3, CuSbX2, AgBiX2), and quaternary (Cu2ZnSnX4, Ag2ZnSnX4, Cu2CdSnX4, Cu2ZnGeX4, Cu2BaSnX4) chalcogenides (X denotes S/Se), focusing especially on the comparative analysis of their optoelectronic performance metrics, electronic band structure, and point defect characteristics. The performance limiting factors of these photoabsorbers are discussed, together with suggestions for further improvement. Several relatively unexplored classes of chalcogenide compounds (such as chalcogenide perovskites, bichalcogenides, etc.) are highlighted, based on promising early reports on their optoelectronic properties. Finally, pathways for practical applications of emerging chalcogenides in solar energy harvesting are discussed against the backdrop of a market dominated by Si-based solar cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shreyash Hadke
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore.,Energy Research Institute @ NTU (ERI@N), Interdisciplinary Graduate Programme, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637553, Singapore
| | - Menglin Huang
- Key Laboratory for Computational Physical Sciences (MOE), Key State Key Laboratory of ASIC and System and School of Microelectronics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Chao Chen
- School of Optical and Electronic Information, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China.,Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
| | - Ying Fan Tay
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore.,Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Agency of Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Singapore 138634, Singapore
| | - Shiyou Chen
- Key Laboratory for Computational Physical Sciences (MOE), Key State Key Laboratory of ASIC and System and School of Microelectronics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Jiang Tang
- School of Optical and Electronic Information, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China.,Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
| | - Lydia Wong
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore.,Singapore-HUJ Alliance for Research and Enterprise (SHARE), Nanomaterials for Energy and Energy-Water Nexus (NEW), Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), Singapore 138602, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ros C, Murcia-López S, Garcia X, Rosado M, Arbiol J, Llorca J, Morante JR. Facing Seawater Splitting Challenges by Regeneration with Ni-Mo-Fe Bifunctional Electrocatalyst for Hydrogen and Oxygen Evolution. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:2872-2881. [PMID: 33826792 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202100194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogen, produced by water splitting, has been proposed as one of the main green energy vectors of the future if produced from renewable energy sources. However, to substitute fossil fuels, large amounts of pure water are necessary, scarce in many world regions. In this work, we fabricate efficient and earth-abundant electrodes, study the challenges of using real seawater, and propose an electrode regeneration method to face undesired salt deposition. Ni-Mo-Fe trimetallic electrocatalyst is deposited on non-expensive graphitic carbon felts both for hydrogen (HER) and oxygen evolution reactions (OER) in seawater and alkaline seawater. Cl- pitting and the chlorine oxidation reaction are suppressed on these substrates and alkalinized electrolyte. Precipitations on the electrodes, mainly CaCO3 , originating from seawater-dissolved components have been studied, and a simple regeneration technique is proposed to rapidly dissolve undesired deposited CaCO3 in acidified seawater. Under alkaline conditions, Ni-Mo-Fe-based catalyst is found to reconfigure, under cathodic bias, into Ni-Mo-Fe alloy with a cubic crystalline structure and Ni : Fe(OH)2 redeposits whereas, under anodic bias, it is transformed into a follicular Ni:FeOOH structure. High productivities over 300 mA cm-2 and voltages down to 1.59 V@10 mA cm-2 for the overall water splitting reaction have been shown, and electrodes are found stable for over 24 h without decay in alkaline seawater conditions and with energy efficiency higher than 61.5 % which makes seawater splitting promising and economically feasible.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carles Ros
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, 08930 Sant Adrià del Besòs, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sebastian Murcia-López
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, 08930 Sant Adrià del Besòs, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xenia Garcia
- Institute of Energy Technologies, Department of Chemical Engineering and Barcelona Research Center in Multiscale Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, EEBE, Eduard Maristany 10-14, 08019, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marcos Rosado
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Catalonia (Spain
| | - Jordi Arbiol
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Catalonia (Spain
- ICREA, Pg. Lluís Companys 23, 08010, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Jordi Llorca
- Institute of Energy Technologies, Department of Chemical Engineering and Barcelona Research Center in Multiscale Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, EEBE, Eduard Maristany 10-14, 08019, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joan R Morante
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, 08930 Sant Adrià del Besòs, Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Martí i Franquès 1, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Recent Development in Earth-Abundant Kesterite Materials and Their Applications. SUSTAINABILITY 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/su12125138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Kesterite Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) has attracted attention as an earth-abundant alternative to commercially successful CIGS solar cells. CZTS exhibits decent optoelectrical properties while having excellent stability on top of being an earth-abundant, low-cost and non-toxic material. Therefore, in recent years, there has been a significant research effort to develop CZTS-based devices. The efficiency of CZTS solar cells reached 12.6% in 2013, and this was a remarkable achievement at the time. However, the efficiency of these devices has been stagnant since then while emerging technologies, most notably perovskite solar cells, keep breaking record after record. Currently, CZTS research focuses on discovering the secrets of material properties that hinder the efficiency of CZTS solar cells while branching out to develop alternative applications for this material. In this review, we summarize the interesting properties of CZTS as well as its promising applications, which include thin-film solar cells, charge-transfer layers in perovskite solar cells, and photoelectrochemical water splitting while briefly commenting on its other possible applications.
Collapse
|
6
|
Ros C, Carretero NM, David J, Arbiol J, Andreu T, Morante JR. Insight into the Degradation Mechanisms of Atomic Layer Deposited TiO 2 as Photoanode Protective Layer. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:29725-29735. [PMID: 31347833 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b05724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Around 100 nm thick TiO2 layers deposited by atomic layer deposition (ALD) have been investigated as anticorrosion protective films for silicon-based photoanodes decorated with 5 nm NiFe catalyst in highly alkaline electrolyte. Completely amorphous layers presented high resistivity; meanwhile, the ones synthesized at 300 °C, having a fully anatase crystalline TiO2 structure, introduced insignificant resistance, showing direct correlation between crystallization degree and electrical conductivity. The conductivity through crystalline TiO2 layers has been found not to be homogeneous, presenting preferential conduction paths attributed to grain boundaries and defects within the crystalline structure. A correlation between the conductivity atomic force microscopy measurements and grain interstitials can be seen, supported by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy cross-sectional images presenting defective regions in crystalline TiO2 grains. It was found that the conduction mechanism goes through the injection of electrons coming from water oxidation from the electrocatalyst into the TiO2 conduction band. Then, electrons are transported to the Si/SiOx/TiO2 interface where electrons recombine with holes given by the p+n-Si junction. No evidences of intra-band-gap states in TiO2 responsible of conductivity have been detected. Stability measurements of fully crystalline samples over 480 h in anodic polarization show a continuous current decay. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy allows to identify that the main cause of deactivation is associated with the loss of TiO2 electrical conductivity, corresponding to a self-passivation mechanism. This is proposed to reflect the effect of OH- ions diffusing in the TiO2 structure in anodic conditions by the electric field. This fact proves that a modification takes place in the defective zone of the layer, blocking the ability to transfer electrical charge through the layer. According to this mechanism, a regeneration of the degradation process is demonstrated possible based on ultraviolet illumination, which contributes to change the occupancy of TiO2 electronic states and to recover the defective zone's conductivity. These findings confirm the connection between the structural properties of the ALD-deposited polycrystalline layer and the degradation mechanisms and thus highlight main concerns toward fabricating long-lasting metal-oxide protective layers for frontal illuminated photoelectrodes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carles Ros
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC) , Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1 , 08930 Sant Adrià del Besòs , Barcelona , Spain
| | - Nina M Carretero
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC) , Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1 , 08930 Sant Adrià del Besòs , Barcelona , Spain
| | - Jeremy David
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST , Campus UAB , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain
| | - Jordi Arbiol
- Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST , Campus UAB , Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona , Spain
- ICREA , Pg. Lluís Companys 23 , 08010 Barcelona , Spain
| | - Teresa Andreu
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC) , Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1 , 08930 Sant Adrià del Besòs , Barcelona , Spain
| | - Joan R Morante
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC) , Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1 , 08930 Sant Adrià del Besòs , Barcelona , Spain
- Universitat de Barcelona (UB) , Martí i Franquès, 1 , 08028 Barcelona , Spain
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Yang W, Moon J. Recent Advances in Earth-Abundant Photocathodes for Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting. CHEMSUSCHEM 2019; 12:1889-1899. [PMID: 30102017 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201801554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 08/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The conversion of solar energy into hydrogen through photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting is an attractive way to store renewable energy. Despite the intriguing concept of solar hydrogen production, efficient PEC devices based on earth-abundant semiconductors should be realized to compete economically with conventional steam reforming processes. Herein, recent milestones in photocathode development for PEC water splitting, particularly in earth-abundant semiconductors, in terms of new techniques for enhancing performance, as well as theoretical aspects, are highlighted. In addition, recent research into newly emerging low-cost p-type semiconductors in the PEC field, such as Cu2 BaSn(S,Se)4 and Sb2 Se3 , are scrutinized and the advantages and disadvantages of each material assessed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wooseok Yang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Jooho Moon
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Giraldo S, Jehl Z, Placidi M, Izquierdo-Roca V, Pérez-Rodríguez A, Saucedo E. Progress and Perspectives of Thin Film Kesterite Photovoltaic Technology: A Critical Review. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2019; 31:e1806692. [PMID: 30767308 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201806692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The latest progress and future perspectives of thin film photovoltaic kesterite technology are reviewed herein. Kesterite is currently the most promising emerging fully inorganic thin film photovoltaic technology based on critical raw-material-free and sustainable solutions. The positioning of kesterites in the frame of the emerging inorganic solar cells is first addressed, and the recent history of this family of materials briefly described. A review of the fast progress achieved earlier this decade is presented, toward the relative slowdown in the recent years partly explained by the large open-circuit voltage (VOC ) deficit recurrently observed even in the best solar cell devices in the literature. Then, through a comparison with the close cousin Cu(In,Ga)Se2 technology, doping and alloying strategies are proposed as critical for enhancing the conversion efficiency of kesterite. In the second section herein, intrinsic and extrinsic doping, as well as alloying strategies are reviewed, presenting the most relevant and recent results, and proposing possible pathways for future implementation. In the last section, a review on technological applications of kesterite is presented, going beyond conventional photovoltaic devices, and demonstrating their suitability as potential candidates in advanced tandem concepts, photocatalysis, thermoelectric, gas sensing, etc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Giraldo
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, 08930, Sant Adrià de Besòs, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Zacharie Jehl
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, 08930, Sant Adrià de Besòs, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marcel Placidi
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, 08930, Sant Adrià de Besòs, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Victor Izquierdo-Roca
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, 08930, Sant Adrià de Besòs, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alejandro Pérez-Rodríguez
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, 08930, Sant Adrià de Besòs, Barcelona, Spain
- IN2UB, Departament d'Enginyeria Electrònica i Biomèdica, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès, 1-11, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Edgardo Saucedo
- Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Jardins de les Dones de Negre 1, 08930, Sant Adrià de Besòs, Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Quang ND, Hien TT, Chinh ND, Kim D, Kim C, Kim D. Transport of photo-generated electrons and holes in TiO2/CdS/CdSe core-shell nanorod structure toward high performance photoelectrochemical cell electrode. Electrochim Acta 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2018.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|