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Gao Y, Zhang B. Probing the Mechanically Stable Solid Electrolyte Interphase and the Implications in Design Strategies. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2205421. [PMID: 36281818 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202205421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The inevitable volume expansion of secondary battery anodes during cycling imposes forces on the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI). The battery performance is closely related to the capability of SEI to maintain intact under the cyclic loading conditions, which basically boils down to the mechanical properties of SEI. The volatile and complex nature of SEI as well as its nanoscale thickness and environmental sensitivity make the interpretation of its mechanical behavior many roadblocks. Widely varied approaches are adopted to investigate the mechanical properties of SEI, and diverse opinions are generated. The lack of consensus at both technical and theoretical levels has hindered the development of effective design strategies to maximize the mechanical stability of SEIs. Here, the essential and desirable mechanical properties of SEI, the available mechanical characterization methods, and important issues meriting attention for higher test accuracy are outlined. Previous attempts to optimize battery performance by tuning SEI mechanical properties are also scrutinized, inconsistencies in these efforts are elucidated, and the underlying causes are explored. Finally, a set of research protocols is proposed to accelerate the achievement of superior battery cycling performance by improving the mechanical stability of SEI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Gao
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Biao Zhang
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
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2
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Liu M, Liu J, Sun J, Zhu Y, Chen K, Zhong H, Ouyang L, Liu H. In Situ Formation of Li 2SiO 3-Li-NaCl Interface on Si and Its Effect on Hydrogen Evolution. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:20917-20924. [PMID: 37096938 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c23285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Silicon has emerged as a competitive candidate for hydrolytic hydrogen production due to its high theoretical hydrogen yield, low cost, and on-demand availability. However, the hydrolysis reaction is extremely restrained by passivated SiO2, including the original one on the Si surface and the generated one during hydrolysis, and almost no hydrogen is produced in pure water. Herein, the original SiO2 surface has been effectively removed by milling micro-Si mixed with a small amount of Li metal and NaCl. An artificial soluble interface on Si has been established containing Li2SiO3, Li, and NaCl. Once micro-Si is placed into water, fresh Si surface can be exposed and a weak LiOH solution can be generated due to the fast dissolution of the interface layer, resulting in the rapid liberation of hydrogen gas. Accordingly, the modified micro-Si displays a significantly enhanced hydrogen production in pure water at 30 °C (1213 mL g-1 H2 within 3.0 h), which is 2.0 and 4.7 times higher than that observed for ball-milled Si and raw Si in 0.06 M LiOH solution, respectively. In addition, it also exhibited an outstanding operation compatibility for practical uses. This work has proposed a green, effective, and scalable strategy to promote hydrogen production from the hydrolysis of Si-based systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mili Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage Materials, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641, PR China
| | - Jiangwen Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage Materials, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641, PR China
| | - Jiangyong Sun
- Institute of New Materials, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510651, PR China
| | - Yongyang Zhu
- Institute of Resources Utilization and Rare Earth Development, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, PR China
| | - Kang Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage Materials, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641, PR China
| | - Hao Zhong
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage Materials, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641, PR China
| | - Liuzhang Ouyang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage Materials, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641, PR China
- Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center of Advanced Energy Storage Materials, Guangzhou 510641, PR China
| | - Hui Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage Materials, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641, PR China
- School of Chemistry and Material Science, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, PR China
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McBrayer JD, Apblett CA, Harrison KL, Fenton KR, Minteer SD. Mechanical studies of the solid electrolyte interphase on anodes in lithium and lithium ion batteries. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 32:502005. [PMID: 34315151 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac17fe] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
A stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer is key to high performing lithium ion and lithium metal batteries for metrics such as calendar and cycle life. The SEI must be mechanically robust to withstand large volumetric changes in anode materials such as lithium and silicon, so understanding the mechanical properties and behavior of the SEI is essential for the rational design of artificial SEI and anode form factors. The mechanical properties and mechanical failure of the SEI are challenging to study, because the SEI is thin at only ~10-200 nm thick and is air sensitive. Furthermore, the SEI changes as a function of electrode material, electrolyte and additives, temperature, potential, and formation protocols. A variety ofin situandex situtechniques have been used to study the mechanics of the SEI on a variety of lithium ion battery anode candidates; however, there has not been a succinct review of the findings thus far. Because of the difficulty of isolating the true SEI and its mechanical properties, there have been a limited number of studies that can fully de-convolute the SEI from the anode it forms on. A review of past research will be helpful for culminating current knowledge and helping to inspire new innovations to better quantify and understand the mechanical behavior of the SEI. This review will summarize the different experimental and theoretical techniques used to study the mechanics of SEI on common lithium battery anodes and their strengths and weaknesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josefine D McBrayer
- Power Sources Technology Group, Sandia National Laboratory, Albuquerque, NM, United States of America
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Utah, 50 S Central Campus Dr, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States of America
| | - Christopher A Apblett
- Power Sources Technology Group, Sandia National Laboratory, Albuquerque, NM, United States of America
| | - Katharine L Harrison
- Nanoscale Sciences Department, Sandia National Laboratory, Albuquerque, NM, United States of America
| | - Kyle R Fenton
- Power Sources Technology Group, Sandia National Laboratory, Albuquerque, NM, United States of America
| | - Shelley D Minteer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 S 1400 E, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States of America
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Ronneburg A, Silvi L, Cooper J, Harbauer K, Ballauff M, Risse S. Solid Electrolyte Interphase Layer Formation during Lithiation of Single-Crystal Silicon Electrodes with a Protective Aluminum Oxide Coating. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:21241-21249. [PMID: 33909399 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c01725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The lithiation of crystalline silicon was studied over several cycles using operando neutron reflectometry over six cycles. A thin layer of aluminum oxide was employed as an artificial coating on the silicon to suppress the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer-related aging effects. Initially, the artificial SEI prevented side effects but led to increased lithium trapping. This layer degraded after two cycles, followed by side reactions, which decrease the coulombic efficiency. No hint for electrode fracturization was found even though the lithiation depth exceeded 1 μm. Two distinct zones with high and low lithium concentrations were found, initially separated by a sharp interface, which broadens with cycling. The correlation of the reflectometry results with the electrochemical current showed the lithium fraction that is lithiated in the silicon and the lithium consumed in side reactions. Also, neutron reflectometry was used to quantify the amount of lithium that remained inside of the silicon. Additional electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was used to gain insights into the electrical properties of the sample via fitting to an equivalent circuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arne Ronneburg
- Department for Electrochemical Energy Storage, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin, Hahn-Meitner Platz 1, 14109 Berlin, Germany
| | - Luca Silvi
- Department for Electrochemical Energy Storage, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin, Hahn-Meitner Platz 1, 14109 Berlin, Germany
| | - Joshaniel Cooper
- ISIS, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, STFC, Oxon OX11 0QH, United Kingdom
| | - Karsten Harbauer
- Institute for Solar Fuels, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin, Hahn-Meitner Platz 1, 14109 Berlin, Germany
| | - Matthias Ballauff
- Department for Electrochemical Energy Storage, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin, Hahn-Meitner Platz 1, 14109 Berlin, Germany
- Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Takustraße 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sebastian Risse
- Department for Electrochemical Energy Storage, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin, Hahn-Meitner Platz 1, 14109 Berlin, Germany
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Stokes K, Kennedy T, Kim GT, Geaney H, Storan D, Laffir F, Appetecchi GB, Passerini S, Ryan KM. Influence of Carbonate-Based Additives on the Electrochemical Performance of Si NW Anodes Cycled in an Ionic Liquid Electrolyte. NANO LETTERS 2020; 20:7011-7019. [PMID: 32648763 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c01774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Addition of electrolyte additives (ethylene or vinylene carbonate) is shown to dramatically improve the cycling stability and capacity retention (1600 mAh g-1) of Si nanowires (NWs) in a safe ionic liquid (IL) electrolyte (0.1LiTFSI-0.6PYR13FSI-0.3PYR13TFSI). We show, using postmortem SEM and TEM, a distinct difference in morphologies of the active material after cycling in the presence or absence of the additives. The difference in performance is shown by postmortem XPS analysis to arise from a notable increase in irreversible silicate formation in the absence of the carbonate additives. The composition of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formed at the active material surface was further analyzed using XPS as a function of the IL components revealing that the SEI was primarily made up of N-, F-, and S-containing compounds from the degradation of the TFSI and FSI anions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Killian Stokes
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
- Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
| | - Tadhg Kennedy
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
- Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
| | - Guk-Tae Kim
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Helmholtzstrasse 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
- Karsruhe Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Hugh Geaney
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
- Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
| | - Dylan Storan
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
- Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
| | - Fathima Laffir
- Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
| | - Giovanni Battista Appetecchi
- Materials and Physicochemical Processes Laboratory, ENEA, Italian National Agency for New Technology, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, Via Anguillrese 301, 00123 Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Passerini
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Helmholtzstrasse 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
- Karsruhe Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Kevin M Ryan
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
- Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
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Ratynski M, Hamankiewicz B, Buchberger DA, Czerwinski A. Surface Oxidation of Nano-Silicon as a Method for Cycle Life Enhancement of Li-ion Active Materials. Molecules 2020; 25:E4093. [PMID: 32906850 PMCID: PMC7570913 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25184093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the many studied Li-ion active materials, silicon presents the highest specific capacity, however it suffers from a great volume change during lithiation. In this work, we present two methods for the chemical modification of silicon nanoparticles. Both methods change the materials' electrochemical characteristics. The combined XPS and SEM results show that the properties of the generated silicon oxide layer depend on the modification procedure employed. Electrochemical characterization reveals that the formed oxide layers show different susceptibility to electro-reduction during the first lithiation. The single step oxidation procedure resulted in a thin and very stable oxide that acts as an artificial SEI layer during electrode operation. The removal of the native oxide prior to further reactions resulted in a very thick oxide layer formation. The created oxide layers (both thin and thick) greatly suppress the effect of silicon volume changes, which significantly reduces electrode degradation during cycling. Both modification techniques are relatively straightforward and scalable to an industrial level. The proposed modified materials reveal great applicability prospects in next generation Li-ion batteries due to their high specific capacity and remarkable cycling stability.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bartosz Hamankiewicz
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland; (M.R.); (D.A.B.); (A.C.)
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Schnabel M, Harvey SP, Arca E, Stetson C, Teeter G, Ban C, Stradins P. Surface SiO 2 Thickness Controls Uniform-to-Localized Transition in Lithiation of Silicon Anodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:27017-27028. [PMID: 32407075 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c03158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Silicon is a promising anode material for lithium-ion batteries because of its high capacity, but its widespread adoption has been hampered by a low cycle life arising from mechanical failure and the absence of a stable solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI). Understanding SEI formation and its impact on cycle life is made more complex by the oxidation of silicon materials in air or during synthesis, which leads to SiOx coatings of varying thicknesses that form the true surface of the electrode. In this paper, the lithiation of SiO2-coated Si is studied in a controlled manner using SiO2 coatings of different thicknesses grown on Si wafers via thermal oxidation. SiO2 thickness has a profound effect on lithiation: below 2 nm, SEI formation followed by uniform lithiation occurs at positive voltages versus Li/Li+. Si lithiation is reversible, and SiO2 lithiation is largely irreversible. Above 2 nm SiO2, voltammetric currents decrease exponentially with SiO2 thickness. For 2-3 nm SiO2, SEI formation above 0.1 V is suppressed, but a hold at low or negative voltages can initiate charge transfer whereupon SEI formation and uniform lithiation occur. Cycling of Si anodes with an SiO2 coating thinner than 3 nm occurs at high Coulombic efficiency (CE). If an SiO2 coating is thicker than 3-4 nm, the behavior is totally different: lithiation at positive voltages is strongly inhibited, and lithiation occurs at poor CE and is highly localized at pinholes which grow over time. As they grow, lithiation becomes more facile and the CE increases. Pinhole growth is proposed to occur via rapid transport of Li along the SiO2/Si interface radially outward from an existing pinhole, followed by the lithiation of SiO2 from the interface outward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Schnabel
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Steven P Harvey
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Elisabetta Arca
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Caleb Stetson
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Glenn Teeter
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Chunmei Ban
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Paul Stradins
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
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Ha Y, Tremolet de Villers BJ, Li Z, Xu Y, Stradins P, Zakutayev A, Burrell A, Han SD. Probing the Evolution of Surface Chemistry at the Silicon-Electrolyte Interphase via In Situ Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy. J Phys Chem Lett 2020; 11:286-291. [PMID: 31845806 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b03284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
We present a novel spectroscopic technique for in situ Raman microscopy studies of battery electrodes. By creating nanostructures on a copper mesh current collector, we were able to utilize surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) to monitor the evolution of the silicon anode-electrolyte interphase. The spectra show reversible Si peak intensity changes upon lithiation and delithiation. Moreover, an alkyl carboxylate species, lithium propionate, was detected as a significant SiEI component. Our experimental setup showed reproducible and stable performance over multiple cycles in terms of both electrochemistry and spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeyoung Ha
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Bertrand J Tremolet de Villers
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Zhifei Li
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Yun Xu
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Paul Stradins
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Andriy Zakutayev
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Anthony Burrell
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Sang-Don Han
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
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Sivonxay E, Aykol M, Persson KA. The lithiation process and Li diffusion in amorphous SiO2 and Si from first-principles. Electrochim Acta 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2019.135344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Han SD, Wood KN, Stetson C, Norman AG, Brumbach MT, Coyle J, Xu Y, Harvey SP, Teeter G, Zakutayev A, Burrell AK. Intrinsic Properties of Individual Inorganic Silicon-Electrolyte Interphase Constituents. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:46993-47002. [PMID: 31738043 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b18252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Because of the complexity, high reactivity, and continuous evolution of the silicon-electrolyte interphase (SiEI), "individual" constituents of the SiEI were investigated to understand their physical, electrochemical, and mechanical properties. For the analysis of these intrinsic properties, known SiEI components (i.e., SiO2, Li2Si2O5, Li2SiO3, Li3SiOx, Li2O, and LiF) were selected and prepared as amorphous thin films. The chemical composition, purity, morphology, roughness, and thickness of prepared samples were characterized using a variety of analytical techniques. On the basis of subsequent analysis, LiF shows the lowest ionic conductivity and relatively weak, brittle mechanical properties, while lithium silicates demonstrate higher ionic conductivities and greater mechanical hardness. This research establishes a framework for identifying components critical for stabilization of the SiEI, thus enabling rational design of new electrolyte additives and functional binders for the development of next-generation advanced Li-ion batteries utilizing Si anodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Don Han
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Kevin N Wood
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Caleb Stetson
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
- Colorado School of Mines , 1500 Illinois Street , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Andrew G Norman
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Michael T Brumbach
- Materials Characterization and Performance , Sandia National Laboratories , 1515 Eubank SE , Albuquerque , New Mexico 87185 , United States
| | - Jaclyn Coyle
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Yun Xu
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Steven P Harvey
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Glenn Teeter
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Andriy Zakutayev
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Anthony K Burrell
- Materials and Chemical Science and Technology Directorate , National Renewable Energy Laboratory , 15013 Denver West Parkway , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
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