Cancer: Approaches from Nanoscience and Technology Approaches

Doxorubicin-Intercalated Li-Al-Based LDHs as Potential Drug Delivery Nanovehicle with pH-Responsive Therapeutic Cargo for Tumor Treatment

Clinical oncology is currently experiencing a technology bottleneck due to the expeditious evolution of therapy defiance in tumors. Although drugs used in chemotherapy work for a sort of cell death with potential clinical application, the effectiveness of chemotherapy-inducing drugs is subject to several endogenous conditions when used alone, necessitating the urgent need for controlled mechanisms. A tumor-targeted drug delivery therapy using Li-Al (M+/M3+)-based layered double hydroxide (LDHs) family has been proposed with the general chemical formula [M+1-x M3+x (OH)]2x+[(Am-)2x/m. n(H2O)]2x-, which is fully biodegradable and works in connection with the therapeutic interaction between LDH nanocarriers and anticancerous doxorubicin (DOX). Compositional variation of Li and Al in LDHs has been used as a nanoplatform, which provides a functional balance between circulation lifetime, drug loading capacity, encapsulation efficiency, and tumor-specific uptake to act as self-regulatory therapeutic cargo to be released intracellularly. First-principle analyses based on DFT have been employed to investigate the interaction of bonding and electronic structure of LDH with DOX and assess its capability and potential for a superior drug carrier. Following the internalization into cancer cells, nanoformulations are carried to the nucleus via lysosomes, and the mechanistic pathways have been revealed. Additionally, in vitro along with in vivo therapeutic assessments on melanoma-bearing mice show a dimensional effect of nanoformulation for better biocompatibility and excellent synergetic anticancer activity. Further, the severe toxic consequences associated with traditional chemotherapy have been eradicated by using injectable hydrogel placed just beneath the tumor site, and regulated release of the drug has been confirmed through protein expression applying various markers. However, Li-Al-based LDH nanocarriers open up new design options for multifunctional nanomedicine, which has intriguing potential for use in cancer treatment through sustained drug delivery.

Cyclodextrin in drug delivery: Exploring scaffolds, properties, and cutting-edge applications

Cyclodextrins (CDs) are unique cyclic compounds that can form inclusion complexes via host-guest complexation with a wide range of molecules, thereby altering their physicochemical properties. These molecules offer the formation of inclusion complexes without the formation of covalent bonds, making them suitable for a variety of applications in pharmaceutical and biomedical fields. Due to their supramolecular host-guest properties, CDs are being utilized in the fabrication of biomaterials, metal-organic frameworks, and nano-drug carriers. Additionally, CDs in combination with biomolecules are biocompatible and can deliver nano to macromolecules at the site of drug actions. However, the availability of free hydroxyl groups and a simple crosslinking process for supramolecular fabrication show immense opportunities for researchers in the field of tissue engineering and biomedical applications. In this review article, we have covered the historical development, various types of chemical frameworks, unique chemical and physical properties, and important applications of CDs in drug delivery and biomedical sciences.

Metal-polyphenol network coated magnetic hydroxyapatite for pH-activated MR imaging and drug delivery

Engineered nanoparticles responsive to tumor microenvironment parameters such as pH have been developed as drug carriers and for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as contrast agents (CA). Nanoscale hydroxyapatite (HAP) has good biocompatibility and specific inhibition of tumor cells. However, the inherent tendency of nanoscale HAP to agglomerate and degrade under natural conditions has hindered its further application. To address this challenge, polyacrylic acid-coordinated Mn²⁺ and F^- co-doped nanoscale HAP (Mn_xFHA-PAA) were developed for MRI and doxorubicin (DOX) loading. Moreover, the metal-polyphenol network (MPN) formed by ligating tannic acid (TA) and Fe³⁺ was successfully functionalized onto the surface of Mn_xFHA-PAA-DOX. The pH-sensitive MPN improves biocompatibility and therapeutic efficacy while preventing the premature release of DOX in a neutral environment. It was demonstrated that the mesoporous structure of Mn_xFHA-PAA@TA-Fe nanoparticles with good dispersion, high specific surface area and large pore size, which can reach more than 90 % encapsulation efficiency (EE) for DOX. Mn_xFHA-PAA-DOX@TA-Fe degrades at low pH and releases Mn²⁺ and DOX that are confined in the nanoparticles. Binding of Mn²⁺ to proteins leads to increased relaxation and enhanced MRI contrast. Such nanoparticles with sensitive pH responsiveness have great potential for tumor diagnosis and therapeutic synergy.

CCT251545 enhances drug delivery and potentiates chemotherapy in multidrug-resistant cancers by Rac1-mediated macropinocytosis

It was well known that P-glycoprotein (P-gp/ABCB1) is a master regulator of multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancers. However, the clinical benefit from blocking this pathway remains inconclusive, which motivates a paradigm shift towards alternative strategies for enhancing drug influx. Using a patient-derived organoid (PDO)-based drug screening platform, we report that the combined use of chemotherapy and CCT251545 (CCT) displays robust synergistic effect against PDOs and reduces proliferation of MDR cancer cells in vitro, and results in regression of xenograft tumors, reductions in metastatic dissemination and recurrence rate in vivo. The synergistic activity mediated by CCT can be mainly attributed to the intense uptake of chemotherapeutic agents into the cells, accompanied by alterations in cell phenotypes defined as a mesenchymal epithelial transformation (MET). Mechanistically, analysis of the transcriptome coupled with validation in cellular and animal models demonstrate that the chemosensitizing effect of CCT is profoundly affected by Rac1-dependent macropinocytosis. Furthermore, CCT binds to NAMPT directly, resulting in elevated NAD levels within MDR cancer cells. This effect promotes the assembly of adherents junction (AJ) components with cytoskeleton, which is required for continuous induction of macropinocytosis and consequent drug internalization. Overall, our results illustrate the potential use of CCT as a combination partner for the commonly used chemotherapeutic drugs in the management of MDR cancers.

Advances in single-cell nanoencapsulation and applications in diseases

Single-cell nanoencapsulation is a method of coating the surface of single cell with nanomaterials. In the early 20th century, with the introduction of various types of organic or inorganic nano-polymer materials, the selection of cell types, and the functional modification of the outer coating, this technology has gradually matured. Typical preparation methods include interfacial polycondensation, complex condensation, spray drying, microdroplet ejection, and layer-by-layer (LbL) self-assembly. The LbL assembly technology utilises nanomaterials with opposite charges deposited on cells by strong interaction (electrostatic interaction) or weak interaction (hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interaction), which drives compounds to spontaneously form films with complete structure, stable performance and unique functions on cells. According to the needs of the disease, choosing appropriate cell types and biocompatible and biodegradable nanomaterials could achieve the purpose of promoting cell proliferation, immune isolation, reducing phagocytosis of the reticuloendothelial system, prolonging the circulation time in vivo, and avoiding repeated administration. Therefore, encapsulated cells could be utilised in various biomedical fields, such as cell catalysis, biotherapy, vaccine manufacturing and antitumor therapy. This article reviews cell nanoencapsulation therapies for diseases, including the various cell sources used, nanoencapsulation technology and the latest advances in preclinical and clinical research.

Polyamino acid calcified nanohybrids induce immunogenic cell death for augmented chemotherapy and chemo-photodynamic synergistic therapy

Background: Monotherapy for cancer treatment is limited by unstable efficacy and uncontrollable toxic side effects, while the multifunctional nanoplatform with complex preparation process cannot avoid the potential toxicity of each functional component. Methods: We exploited tumor-specific activated polyamino acid calcified nanoparticles (CHC NPs) as new-type oxidative stress amplification of anticancer drugs via building a safe and biodegradable multifunctional nanoplatform. Giving priority to chemotherapy, and synergizing chemodynamic therapy (CDT) with photodynamic therapy (PDT), this strategy was to achieve enhanced chemotherapy, simultaneously inducing immunogenic cell death and inhibiting tumor cell invasion. Results: Based on amorphous calcium carbonate, pH-responsive nanocarrier was prepared with classical chemotherapeutic drug 10-hydroxycamplothecin (HCPT) and photosensitizer Chlorin e6 (Ce6) to realize multifunctional nanotheranostics. Conclusion: Inventive calcified nanohybrids, where topoisomerase inhibited by HCPT to prevent DNA synthesis, the generation of •OH induced via Fenton reaction, along with a large amount of 1O2 produced by Ce6, might be a promising strategy for anti-tumor combination therapy in clinical translation.

Hybrid Graphene-Gold Nanoparticle-based Nucleic Acid Conjugates for Cancer-Specific Multimodal Imaging and Combined Therapeutics

Nanoparticle-based nucleic acid conjugates (NP-NACs) hold great promise for theragnostic (diagnostic and therapeutic) applications. However, several limitations have hindered the realization of their full potential in the clinical treatment of cancer and other diseases. In diagnosis, NP-NACs, combined with conventional optical sensing systems, have been applied for cancer detection in vitro, but low signal-to-noise ratios limit their broad in vivo applications. Meanwhile, the efficiency of NP-NAC-mediated cancer therapies has been limited through the adaptation of alternative pro-survival pathways in cancer cells. The recent emergence of personalized and precision medicine has outlined the importance of both accurate diagnosis and efficient therapeutics in a single platform. As such, we report the controlled assembly of hybrid graphene oxide/gold nanoparticle-based cancer-specific NACs (Au@GO NP-NACs) for multimodal imaging and combined therapeutics. Our developed Au@GO NP-NACs shows excellent surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)-mediated live-cell cancer detection and multimodal synergistic cancer therapy through the use of photothermal, genetic, and chemotherapeutic strategies. Synergistic and selective killing of cancer cells were then demonstrated by using in vitro microfluidic models and nine different cancer cell lines by further incorporating near-infrared photothermal hyperthermia, a Topoisomerase II anti-cancer drug, and cancer targeting peptides. Moreover, with distinctive advantages of the Au@GO NP-NACs for cancer theragnostics, we further demonstrated precision cancer treatment through the detection of cancer cells in vivo using SERS followed by efficient ablation of the tumor. Therefore, our Au@GO NP-NACs could pave a new road for the advanced theragnostics of cancer as well as many other diseases.

Tumor microenvironment-activatable Fe-doxorubicin preloaded amorphous CaCO3 nanoformulation triggers ferroptosis in target tumor cells

The rapid development of treatment resistance in tumors poses a technological bottleneck in clinical oncology. Ferroptosis is a form of regulated cell death with clinical translational potential, but the efficacy of ferroptosis-inducing agents is susceptible to many endogenous factors when administered alone, for which some cooperating mechanisms are urgently required. Here, we report an amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC)-based nanoassembly for tumor-targeted ferroptosis therapy, in which the totally degradable ACC substrate could synergize with the therapeutic interaction between doxorubicin (DOX) and Fe2+. The nanoplatform was simultaneously modified by dendrimers with metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2)-sheddable PEG or targeting ligands, which offers the functional balance between circulation longevity and tumor-specific uptake. The therapeutic cargo could be released intracellularly in a self-regulated manner through acidity-triggered degradation of ACC, where DOX could amplify the ferroptosis effects of Fe2+ by producing H2O2. This nanoformulation has demonstrated potent ferroptosis efficacy and may offer clinical promise.

Intracellular Photothermal Delivery for Suspension Cells Using Sharp Nanoscale Tips in Microwells

Efficient intracellular delivery of biomolecules into cells that grow in suspension is of great interest for biomedical research, such as for applications in cancer immunotherapy. Although tremendous effort has been expended, it remains challenging for existing transfer platforms to deliver materials efficiently into suspension cells. Here, we demonstrate a high-efficiency photothermal delivery approach for suspension cells using sharp nanoscale metal-coated tips positioned at the edge of microwells, which provide controllable membrane disruption for each cell in an array. Self-aligned microfabrication generates a uniform microwell array with three-dimensional nanoscale metallic sharp tip structures. Suspension cells self-position by gravity within each microwell in direct contact with eight sharp tips, where laser-induced cavitation bubbles generate transient pores in the cell membrane to facilitate intracellular delivery of extracellular cargo. A range of cargo sizes were tested on this platform using Ramos suspension B cells with an efficiency of >84% for Calcein green (0.6 kDa) and >45% for FITC-dextran (2000 kDa), with retained viability of >96% and a throughput of >100 000 cells delivered per minute. The bacterial enzyme β-lactamase (29 kDa) was delivered into Ramos B cells and retained its biological activity, whereas a green fluorescence protein expression plasmid was delivered into Ramos B cells with a transfection efficiency of >58%, and a viability of >89% achieved.

HAp@GO drug delivery vehicle with dual-stimuli-triggered drug release property and efficient synergistic therapy function against cancer

Nanoscale hydroxyapatite (HAp) is an optimal candidate material in biomedical area for its good biocompatibility and bioactivity. In this study, HAp nanorods are prepared via hydrothermal method and combined with monolayered graphene oxide (GO). The obtained HAp@GO with excellent biocompatibility is revealed to have high drug loading capacity (698.7 μg/mg) for anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) and efficient photothermal conversion property. And the drug release property of DOX loaded HAp@GO (HAp@GO-DOX) is demonstrated to be controlled by pH and near-infrared light, which is favorable for cancer therapy. in vitro studies on cancer therapy demonstrate that the combined treatment, compared with either chemotherapy or photothermal therapy alone, has better synergistic therapeutic effect. These findings prove the great potential application of the nanocomposites for cancer therapy.

Reduction-sensitive CD44 receptor-targeted hyaluronic acid derivative micelles for doxorubicin delivery

Introduction

A reduction-sensitive CD44-positive tumor-targetable drug delivery system for doxorubicin (DOX) delivery was developed based on hyaluronic acid (HA)-grafted polymers.

Materials and methods

HA was conjugated with folic acid (FA) via a reduction-sensitive disulfide linkage to form an amphiphilic polymer (HA-ss-FA). The chemical structure of HA-ss-FA was analyzed by ultraviolet spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The molecular weight of HA-ss-FA was determined by high-performance gel permeation chromatography. Blank HA-ss-FA micelles and DOX-loaded micelles were prepared and characterized. The reduction responsibility, cellular uptake, and in vivo biodistribution of HA-ss-FA micelles were investigated.

Results

DOX-loaded micelles were of high encapsulation efficiency (88.09%), high drug-loading content (22.70%), appropriate mean diameter (100-120 nm), narrow size distribution, and negative zeta potential (-6.7 to -31.5 mV). The DOX release from the micelles was significantly enhanced in reduction environment compared to normal environment. The result of in vitro cytotoxicity assay indicated that the blank micelles were of low toxicity and good biocompatibility and the cell viabilities were >100% with the concentration of HA-ss-FA from 18.75 to 600.00 μg/mL. Cellular uptake and in vivo biodistribution studies showed that DOX-loaded micelles were tumor-targetable and could significantly enhance cellular uptake by CD44 receptor-mediated endocytosis, and the cellular uptake of DOX in CD44-positve A549 cells was 1.6-fold more than that in CD44-negative L02 cells. In vivo biodistribution of HA-ss-FA micelles showed that micelles were of good in vivo tumor targetability and the fluorescence of indocyanine green (ICG)-loaded micelles was 4- to 6.6-fold stronger than free ICG within 6 h in HCCLM3 tumor-bearing nude mice.

Conclusion

HA-ss-FA is a promising nanocarrier with excellent biocompatibility, tumor targetability, and controlled drug release capability for delivery of chemotherapy drugs in cancer therapy.

Single- and two-photon imaging of human micrometastases and disseminated tumour cells with conjugates of nanobodies and quantum dots

Early detection of malignant tumours and, especially, micrometastases and disseminated tumour cells is still a challenge. In order to implement highly sensitive diagnostic tools we demonstrate the use of nanoprobes engineered from nanobodies (single-domain antibodies, sdAbs) and fluorescent quantum dots (QDs) for single- and two-photon detection and imaging of human micrometastases and disseminated tumour cells in ex vivo biological samples of breast and pancreatic metastatic tumour mouse models expressing human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) or carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA). By staining thin (5–10 µm) paraffin and thick (50 µm) agarose tissue sections, we detected HER2- and CEA-positive human tumour cells infiltrating the surrounding tissues or metastasizing to different organs, including the brain, testis, lung, liver, and lymph nodes. Compared to conventional fluorescently labelled antibodies the sdAb-HER2-QD and sdAb-CEA-QD nanoprobes are superior in detecting micrometastases in tissue sections by lower photobleaching and higher brightness of fluorescence signals ensuring much better discrimination of positive signals versus background. Very high two-photon absorption cross-sections of QDs and small size of the nanoprobes ensure efficient imaging of thick tissue sections unattainable with conventional fluorescent probes. The nanobody–QD probes will help to improve early cancer diagnosis and prognosis of progression by assessing metastasis.

Biodegradable Drug-Loaded Hydroxyapatite Nanotherapeutic Agent for Targeted Drug Release in Tumors

Tumor-targeted drug delivery systems have been increasingly used to improve the therapeutic efficiency of anticancer drugs and reduce their toxic side effects in vivo. Focused on this point, doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded hydroxyapatite (HAP) nanorods consisting of folic acid (FA) modification (DOX@HAP-FA) were developed for efficient antitumor treatment. The DOX-loaded nanorods were synthesized through in situ coprecipitation and hydrothermal method with a DOX template, demonstrating a new procedure for drug loading in HAP materials. DOX could be efficiently released from DOX@HAP-FA within 24 h in weakly acidic buffer solution (pH = 6.0) because of the degradation of HAP nanorods. With endocytosis under the mediation of folate receptors, the nanorods exhibited enhanced cellular uptake and further degraded, and consequently, the proliferation of targeted cells was inhibited. More importantly, in a tumor-bearing mouse model, DOX@HAP-FA treatment demonstrated excellent tumor growth inhibition. In addition, no apparent side effects were observed during the treatment. These results suggested that DOX@HAP-FA may be a promising nanotherapeutic agent for effective cancer treatment in vivo.

Engineering 3D Hydrogels for Personalized In Vitro Human Tissue Models

There is a growing interest in engineering hydrogels for 3D tissue and disease models. The major motivation is to better mimic the physiological microenvironment of the disease and human condition. 3D tissue models derived from patients' own cells can potentially revolutionize the way treatment and diagnostic alternatives are developed. This requires development of tissue mimetic hydrogels with user defined and tunable properties. In this review article, a recent summary of 3D hydrogel platforms for in vitro tissue and disease modeling is given. Hydrogel design considerations and available hydrogel systems are summarized, followed by the types of currently available hydrogel models, such as bulk hydrogels, porous scaffolds, fibrous scaffolds, hydrogel microspheres, hydrogel sandwich systems, microwells, and 3D bioprinted constructs. Although hydrogels are utilized for a wide range of tissue models, this article focuses on liver and cancer models. This article also provides a detailed section on current challenges and future perspectives of hydrogel-based tissue models.