1
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Gupta S, Bhattacharyya S. Footprints of scanning probe microscopy on halide perovskites. Chem Commun (Camb) 2024. [PMID: 39295277 DOI: 10.1039/d4cc03658a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/21/2024]
Abstract
Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) and advanced atomic force microscopy (AFM++) have become pivotal for nanoscale elucidation of the structural, optoelectronic and photovoltaic properties of halide perovskite single crystals and polycrystalline films, both under ex situ and in situ conditions. These techniques reveal detailed information about film topography, compositional mapping, charge distribution, near-field electrical behaviors, cation-lattice interactions, ion dynamics, piezoelectric characteristics, mechanical durability, thermal conductivity, and magnetic properties of doped perovskite lattices. This article outlines the advancements in SPM techniques that deepen our understanding of the optoelectronic and photovoltaic performances of halide perovskites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shresth Gupta
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Centre for Advanced Functional Materials, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Kolkata, Mohanpur-741246, India.
| | - Sayan Bhattacharyya
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Centre for Advanced Functional Materials, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Kolkata, Mohanpur-741246, India.
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2
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Pregowska A, Roszkiewicz A, Osial M, Giersig M. How scanning probe microscopy can be supported by artificial intelligence and quantum computing? Microsc Res Tech 2024. [PMID: 38864463 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.24629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
The impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is rapidly expanding, revolutionizing both science and society. It is applied to practically all areas of life, science, and technology, including materials science, which continuously requires novel tools for effective materials characterization. One of the widely used techniques is scanning probe microscopy (SPM). SPM has fundamentally changed materials engineering, biology, and chemistry by providing tools for atomic-precision surface mapping. Despite its many advantages, it also has some drawbacks, such as long scanning times or the possibility of damaging soft-surface materials. In this paper, we focus on the potential for supporting SPM-based measurements, with an emphasis on the application of AI-based algorithms, especially Machine Learning-based algorithms, as well as quantum computing (QC). It has been found that AI can be helpful in automating experimental processes in routine operations, algorithmically searching for optimal sample regions, and elucidating structure-property relationships. Thus, it contributes to increasing the efficiency and accuracy of optical nanoscopy scanning probes. Moreover, the combination of AI-based algorithms and QC may have enormous potential to enhance the practical application of SPM. The limitations of the AI-QC-based approach were also discussed. Finally, we outline a research path for improving AI-QC-powered SPM. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Artificial intelligence and quantum computing as support for scanning probe microscopy. The analysis indicates a research gap in the field of scanning probe microscopy. The research aims to shed light into ai-qc-powered scanning probe microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Pregowska
- Department of Information and Computational Science, Institute of Fundamental Technological Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agata Roszkiewicz
- Department of Information and Computational Science, Institute of Fundamental Technological Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Osial
- Department of Information and Computational Science, Institute of Fundamental Technological Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Michael Giersig
- Department of Information and Computational Science, Institute of Fundamental Technological Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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3
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Han J, Luo D, Huang W, Wang F, Jia C, Li X, Chen Y. Multifunctional chemical anchors achieve a boosted fill factor and mitigate ion migration of high-stability perovskite solar cells. Dalton Trans 2024; 53:8356-8368. [PMID: 38669078 DOI: 10.1039/d4dt00076e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2024]
Abstract
To date, it is urgent to produce perovskite films with comparative or even better morphologies in an open-air environment. Unfortunately, a substantial number of trap states on the grain surface, especially the grain boundaries (GBs) of a perovskite layer, can bring about significant deterioration in the performance of PSCs. Trap-induced carrier recombination directly exerts a detrimental influence on the carrier collection efficiency and electronic properties of a perovskite active film. Herein, 4(5)-iodoimidazole (4II), a small organic molecule agent, was introduced to passivate the surface and bulk traps of the active film, which resulted in a controlled morphology, improved carrier extraction and suppressed ion migration for the devices fabricated in a relatively humid and O2-containing environment. Conductive atomic force microscopy (C-AFM) and Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) measurements were applied to study trap passivation and suppression of ion migration across the GBs of perovskite films. The results manifest that the -CN group preferably bonds with the less-coordinated Pb2+ and the -NH- group favorably forms hydrogen bonds with the uncoordinated I-. As a result, the champion device delivered a significantly boosted power conversion efficiency from 17.22% to 20.95%, with an improved fill factor (FF) from 70.54% to 80.40%, and improved ambient stability of the unencapsulated device. This study may probe research insight into the design of passivators with synergistic effects for morphology control and reduction of carrier recombination loss for equally efficient perovskite photovoltaics fabricated in ambient air.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Han
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China.
| | - Dandan Luo
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China.
| | - Wei Huang
- School of Physics, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230061, China.
| | - Fei Wang
- School of Physics, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230061, China.
| | - Chong Jia
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China.
| | - Xinhua Li
- School of Mathematics and Physics, Anhui Jianzhu University, Hefei, 230601, China
- Anhui Research Center of Generic Technology in New Display Industry, Hefei, 230601, China
| | - Yiqing Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China.
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4
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Yang L, Wang Y, Wang X, Shafique S, Zheng F, Huang L, Liu X, Zhang J, Zhu Y, Xiao C, Hu Z. Identification the Role of Grain Boundaries in Polycrystalline Photovoltaics via Advanced Atomic Force Microscope. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2304362. [PMID: 37752782 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202304362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 09/09/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Atomicforce microscopy (AFM)-based scanning probing techniques, including Kelvinprobe force microscopy (KPFM) and conductive atomic force microscopy (C-AFM), have been widely applied to investigate thelocal electromagnetic, physical, or molecular characteristics of functional materials on a microscopic scale. The microscopic inhomogeneities of the electronic properties of polycrystalline photovoltaic materials can be examined by these advanced AFM techniques, which bridge the local properties of materials to overall device performance and guide the optimization of the photovoltaic devices. In this review, the critical roles of local optoelectronic heterogeneities, especially at grain interiors (GIs) and grain boundaries (GBs) of polycrystalline photovoltaic materials, including versatile polycrystalline silicon, inorganic compound materials, and emerging halide perovskites, studied by KPFM and C-AFM, are systematically identified. How the band alignment and electrical properties of GIs and GBs affect the carrier transport behavior are discussed from the respective of photovoltaic research. Further exploiting the potential of such AFM-based techniques upon a summary of their up-to-date applications in polycrystalline photovoltaic materials is beneficial to acomprehensive understanding of the design and manipulation principles of thenovel solar cells and facilitating the development of the next-generation photovoltaics and optoelectronics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liu Yang
- Department of Microelectronic Science and Engineering, Laboratory of Clean Energy Storage and Conversion, School of Physical Science and Technology, Ningbo Collaborative Innovation Center of Nonlinear Calamity System of Ocean and Atmosphere, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Yanyan Wang
- Department of Microelectronic Science and Engineering, Laboratory of Clean Energy Storage and Conversion, School of Physical Science and Technology, Ningbo Collaborative Innovation Center of Nonlinear Calamity System of Ocean and Atmosphere, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
- Center for Micro-Nano Systems, School of Information Science and Technology (SIST), Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Xu Wang
- Department of Microelectronic Science and Engineering, Laboratory of Clean Energy Storage and Conversion, School of Physical Science and Technology, Ningbo Collaborative Innovation Center of Nonlinear Calamity System of Ocean and Atmosphere, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Shareen Shafique
- Department of Microelectronic Science and Engineering, Laboratory of Clean Energy Storage and Conversion, School of Physical Science and Technology, Ningbo Collaborative Innovation Center of Nonlinear Calamity System of Ocean and Atmosphere, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Fei Zheng
- Department of Microelectronic Science and Engineering, Laboratory of Clean Energy Storage and Conversion, School of Physical Science and Technology, Ningbo Collaborative Innovation Center of Nonlinear Calamity System of Ocean and Atmosphere, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Like Huang
- Department of Microelectronic Science and Engineering, Laboratory of Clean Energy Storage and Conversion, School of Physical Science and Technology, Ningbo Collaborative Innovation Center of Nonlinear Calamity System of Ocean and Atmosphere, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Xiaohui Liu
- Department of Microelectronic Science and Engineering, Laboratory of Clean Energy Storage and Conversion, School of Physical Science and Technology, Ningbo Collaborative Innovation Center of Nonlinear Calamity System of Ocean and Atmosphere, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Department of Microelectronic Science and Engineering, Laboratory of Clean Energy Storage and Conversion, School of Physical Science and Technology, Ningbo Collaborative Innovation Center of Nonlinear Calamity System of Ocean and Atmosphere, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Yuejin Zhu
- School of Science and Engineering, College of Science and Technology, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315300, China
| | - Chuanxiao Xiao
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315201, China
| | - Ziyang Hu
- Department of Microelectronic Science and Engineering, Laboratory of Clean Energy Storage and Conversion, School of Physical Science and Technology, Ningbo Collaborative Innovation Center of Nonlinear Calamity System of Ocean and Atmosphere, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
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5
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Wang F, Ma X, Huang W, Han J, Luo D, Jia C, Chen Y. The synergistic effect of trap deactivation and hysteresis suppression at grain boundaries in perovskite interfaces via multifunctional groups. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:29211-29223. [PMID: 37873576 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp01500a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
In spite of the outstanding photoelectric properties of perovskite materials, numerous defects produced in the preparation process eventually result in decomposition of the perovskite layer. To date, the mechanism of defect passivation and hysteresis reduction via additive engineering has still been obscure for perovskite materials, which seriously restricts performance improvement of the devices. Herein, conductive atomic force microscopy (C-AFM) and Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) measurements were applied to probe carbamic acid ethyl ester (EU)-based trap passivation and suppression of hysteresis in perovskite films. The results indicate that the internal interaction between multifunctional bonds ("CO" and "-NH2") of EU and Pb2+ ions of the perovskite may inactivate the trap state and inhibit ion migration within sub-grains and grain boundaries (GBs), resulting in improvement of the long-term stability of the cells. In consequence, the EU-modified champion device prepared in all-air achieved a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 20.10%, one of the high performances for the devices fabricated in air to date. In short, this work will propose some interesting speculation about ion migration as well as its influence on hysteresis in perovskite materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Wang
- School of Physics, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, Anhui, 230009, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaohu Ma
- School of Physics, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, Anhui, 230009, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Huang
- School of Physics, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, Anhui, 230009, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Han
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, No. 193 tunxi Rd., Hefei City, Anhui Province, 230009, People's Republic of China.
| | - Dandan Luo
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, No. 193 tunxi Rd., Hefei City, Anhui Province, 230009, People's Republic of China.
| | - Chong Jia
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, No. 193 tunxi Rd., Hefei City, Anhui Province, 230009, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yiqing Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, No. 193 tunxi Rd., Hefei City, Anhui Province, 230009, People's Republic of China.
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6
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Pothoof J, Westbrook RJE, Giridharagopal R, Breshears MD, Ginger DS. Surface Passivation Suppresses Local Ion Motion in Halide Perovskites. J Phys Chem Lett 2023:6092-6098. [PMID: 37364056 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.3c01089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
We use scanning probe microscopy to study ion migration in formamidinium (FA)-containing halide perovskite semiconductor Cs0.22FA0.78Pb(I0.85Br0.15)3 in the presence and absence of chemical surface passivation. We measure the evolving contact potential difference (CPD) using scanning Kelvin probe microscopy (SKPM) following voltage poling. We find that ion migration leads to a ∼100 mV shift in the CPD of control films after poling with 3 V for only a few seconds. Moreover, we find that ion migration is heterogeneous, with domain interfaces leading to a larger CPD shift than domain interiors. Application of (3-aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane (APTMS) as a surface passivator further leads to 5-fold reduction in the CPD shift from ∼100 to ∼20 mV. We use hyperspectral microscopy to confirm that APTMS-treated perovskite films undergo less photoinduced halide migration than control films. We interpret these results as due to a reduction in the halide vacancy concentration after APTMS passivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Pothoof
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
| | - Robert J E Westbrook
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
| | - Rajiv Giridharagopal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
| | - Madeleine D Breshears
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
| | - David S Ginger
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
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7
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Zhu C, Fuchs T, Weber SAL, Richter FH, Glasser G, Weber F, Butt HJ, Janek J, Berger R. Understanding the evolution of lithium dendrites at Li 6.25Al 0.25La 3Zr 2O 12 grain boundaries via operando microscopy techniques. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1300. [PMID: 36894536 PMCID: PMC9998873 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36792-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The growth of lithium dendrites in inorganic solid electrolytes is an essential drawback that hinders the development of reliable all-solid-state lithium metal batteries. Generally, ex situ post mortem measurements of battery components show the presence of lithium dendrites at the grain boundaries of the solid electrolyte. However, the role of grain boundaries in the nucleation and dendritic growth of metallic lithium is not yet fully understood. Here, to shed light on these crucial aspects, we report the use of operando Kelvin probe force microscopy measurements to map locally time-dependent electric potential changes in the Li6.25Al0.25La3Zr2O12 garnet-type solid electrolyte. We find that the Galvani potential drops at grain boundaries near the lithium metal electrode during plating as a response to the preferential accumulation of electrons. Time-resolved electrostatic force microscopy measurements and quantitative analyses of lithium metal formed at the grain boundaries under electron beam irradiation support this finding. Based on these results, we propose a mechanistic model to explain the preferential growth of lithium dendrites at grain boundaries and their penetration in inorganic solid electrolytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Zhu
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Till Fuchs
- Institute of Physical Chemistry & Center for Materials Research, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff Ring 17, 35392, Giessen, Germany
| | - Stefan A L Weber
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128, Mainz, Germany
- Institute of Physics, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Staudingerweg 7, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Felix H Richter
- Institute of Physical Chemistry & Center for Materials Research, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff Ring 17, 35392, Giessen, Germany
| | - Gunnar Glasser
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Franjo Weber
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Hans-Jürgen Butt
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Jürgen Janek
- Institute of Physical Chemistry & Center for Materials Research, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff Ring 17, 35392, Giessen, Germany.
| | - Rüdiger Berger
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128, Mainz, Germany.
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8
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Sidhik S, Wang Y, De Siena M, Asadpour R, Torma AJ, Terlier T, Ho K, Li W, Puthirath AB, Shuai X, Agrawal A, Traore B, Jones M, Giridharagopal R, Ajayan PM, Strzalka J, Ginger DS, Katan C, Alam MA, Even J, Kanatzidis MG, Mohite AD. Deterministic fabrication of 3D/2D perovskite bilayer stacks for durable and efficient solar cells. Science 2022; 377:1425-1430. [PMID: 36137050 DOI: 10.1126/science.abq7652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Realizing solution-processed heterostructures is a long-enduring challenge in halide perovskites because of solvent incompatibilities that disrupt the underlying layer. By leveraging the solvent dielectric constant and Gutmann donor number, we could grow phase-pure two-dimensional (2D) halide perovskite stacks of the desired composition, thickness, and bandgap onto 3D perovskites without dissolving the underlying substrate. Characterization reveals a 3D-2D transition region of 20 nanometers mainly determined by the roughness of the bottom 3D layer. Thickness dependence of the 2D perovskite layer reveals the anticipated trends for n-i-p and p-i-n architectures, which is consistent with band alignment and carrier transport limits for 2D perovskites. We measured a photovoltaic efficiency of 24.5%, with exceptional stability of T99 (time required to preserve 99% of initial photovoltaic efficiency) of >2000 hours, implying that the 3D/2D bilayer inherits the intrinsic durability of 2D perovskite without compromising efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siraj Sidhik
- Department of Material Science and Nanoengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA.,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Yafei Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA.,School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China
| | - Michael De Siena
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Reza Asadpour
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Andrew J Torma
- Applied Physics Graduate Program, Smalley-Curl Institute, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Tanguy Terlier
- Shared Equipment Authority, Secure and Intelligent Micro-Systems (SIMS) Laboratory, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Kevin Ho
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Wenbin Li
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA.,Applied Physics Graduate Program, Smalley-Curl Institute, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Anand B Puthirath
- Department of Material Science and Nanoengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Xinting Shuai
- Department of Material Science and Nanoengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Ayush Agrawal
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Boubacar Traore
- École Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes (ENSCR), Univ Rennes, CNRS, Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes (ISCR)-UMR 6226, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Matthew Jones
- Department of Material Science and Nanoengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA.,Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | | | - Pulickel M Ajayan
- Department of Material Science and Nanoengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Joseph Strzalka
- X-Ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
| | - David S Ginger
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Claudine Katan
- École Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes (ENSCR), Univ Rennes, CNRS, Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes (ISCR)-UMR 6226, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Muhammad Ashraful Alam
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Jacky Even
- Institut National des Sciences Appliquées (INSA) Rennes, Univ Rennes, CNRS, Institut Fonctions Optiques pour les Technologies de l'Information (FOTON)-UMR 6082, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Mercouri G Kanatzidis
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Aditya D Mohite
- Department of Material Science and Nanoengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA.,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
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9
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Breshears MD, Giridharagopal R, Pothoof J, Ginger DS. A Robust Neural Network for Extracting Dynamics from Electrostatic Force Microscopy Data. J Chem Inf Model 2022; 62:4342-4350. [PMID: 36099208 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.2c00738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Advances in scanning probe microscopy (SPM) methods such as time-resolved electrostatic force microscopy (trEFM) now permit the mapping of fast local dynamic processes with high resolution in both space and time, but such methods can be time-consuming to analyze and calibrate. Here, we design and train a regression neural network (NN) that accelerates and simplifies the extraction of local dynamics from SPM data directly in a cantilever-independent manner, allowing the network to process data taken with different cantilevers. We validate the NN's ability to recover local dynamics with a fidelity equal to or surpassing conventional, more time-consuming, calibrations using both simulated and real microscopy data. We apply this method to extract accurate photoinduced carrier dynamics on n = 1 butylammonium lead iodide, a halide perovskite semiconductor film that is of interest for applications in both solar photovoltaics and quantum light sources. Finally, we use SHapley Additive exPlanations to evaluate the robustness of the trained model, confirm its cantilever-independence, and explore which parts of the trEFM signal are important to the network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeleine D Breshears
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Rajiv Giridharagopal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Justin Pothoof
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - David S Ginger
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
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10
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Aubriet V, Courouble K, Bardagot O, Demadrille R, Borowik Ł, Grévin B. Hidden surface photovoltages revealed by pump probe KPFM. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 33:225401. [PMID: 35168229 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac5542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we use pump-probe Kelvin probe force microscopy (pp-KPFM) in combination with non-contact atomic force microscopy (nc-AFM) under ultrahigh vacuum, to investigate the nature of the light-induced surface potential dynamics in alumina-passivated crystalline silicon, and in an organic bulk heterojunction thin film based on the PTB7-PC71BM tandem. In both cases, we demonstrate that it is possible to identify and separate the contributions of two different kinds of photo-induced charge distributions that give rise to potential shifts with opposite polarities, each characterized by different dynamics. The data acquired on the passivated crystalline silicon are shown to be fully consistent with the band-bending at the silicon-oxide interface, and with electron trapping processes in acceptors states and in the passivation layer. The full sequence of events that follow the electron-hole generation can be observed on the pp-KPFM curves, i.e. the carriers spatial separation and hole accumulation in the space charge area, the electron trapping, the electron-hole recombination, and finally the electron trap-release. Two dimensional dynamical maps of the organic blend photo-response are obtained by recording the pump-probe KPFM curves in data cube mode, and by implementing a specific batch processing protocol. Sample areas displaying an extra positive SPV component characterized by decay time-constants of a few tens of microseconds are thus revealed, and are tentatively attributed to specific interfaces formed between a polymer-enriched skin layer and recessed acceptor aggregates. Decay time constant images of the negative SPV component confirm that the acceptor clusters act as electron-trapping centres. Whatever the photovoltaic technology, our results exemplify how some of the SPV components may remain completely hidden to conventional SPV imaging by KPFM, with possible consequences in terms of photo-response misinterpretation. This work furthermore highlights the need of implementing time-resolved techniques that can provide a quantitative measurement of the time-resolved potential.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Olivier Bardagot
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG-SyMMES, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Renaud Demadrille
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG-SyMMES, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Łukasz Borowik
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, LETI, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Benjamin Grévin
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG-SyMMES, F-38000 Grenoble, France
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11
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Tennyson E, Frohna K, Drake WK, Sahli F, Chien-Jen Yang T, Fu F, Werner J, Chosy C, Bowman AR, Doherty TAS, Jeangros Q, Ballif C, Stranks SD. Multimodal Microscale Imaging of Textured Perovskite-Silicon Tandem Solar Cells. ACS ENERGY LETTERS 2021; 6:2293-2304. [PMID: 34307879 PMCID: PMC8291767 DOI: 10.1021/acsenergylett.1c00568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Halide perovskite/crystalline silicon (c-Si) tandem solar cells promise power conversion efficiencies beyond the limits of single-junction cells. However, the local light-matter interactions of the perovskite material embedded in this pyramidal multijunction configuration, and the effect on device performance, are not well understood. Here, we characterize the microscale optoelectronic properties of the perovskite semiconductor deposited on different c-Si texturing schemes. We find a strong spatial and spectral dependence of the photoluminescence (PL) on the geometrical surface constructs, which dominates the underlying grain-to-grain PL variation found in halide perovskite films. The PL response is dependent upon the texturing design, with larger pyramids inducing distinct PL spectra for valleys and pyramids, an effect which is mitigated with small pyramids. Further, optimized quasi-Fermi level splittings and PL quantum efficiencies occur when the c-Si large pyramids have had a secondary smoothing etch. Our results suggest that a holistic optimization of the texturing is required to maximize light in- and out-coupling of both absorber layers and there is a fine balance between the optimal geometrical configuration and optoelectronic performance that will guide future device designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth
M. Tennyson
- Cavendish
Laboratory, University of Cambridge, 19 JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, U.K.
| | - Kyle Frohna
- Cavendish
Laboratory, University of Cambridge, 19 JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, U.K.
| | - William K. Drake
- Cavendish
Laboratory, University of Cambridge, 19 JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, U.K.
| | - Florent Sahli
- École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Photovoltaics and Thin-Film Electronics Laboratory, Neuchatel 2002, CH, Switzerland
| | - Terry Chien-Jen Yang
- École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Photovoltaics and Thin-Film Electronics Laboratory, Neuchatel 2002, CH, Switzerland
| | - Fan Fu
- École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Photovoltaics and Thin-Film Electronics Laboratory, Neuchatel 2002, CH, Switzerland
| | - Jérémie Werner
- École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Photovoltaics and Thin-Film Electronics Laboratory, Neuchatel 2002, CH, Switzerland
| | - Cullen Chosy
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Alan R. Bowman
- Cavendish
Laboratory, University of Cambridge, 19 JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, U.K.
| | - Tiarnan A. S. Doherty
- Cavendish
Laboratory, University of Cambridge, 19 JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, U.K.
| | - Quentin Jeangros
- École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Photovoltaics and Thin-Film Electronics Laboratory, Neuchatel 2002, CH, Switzerland
| | - Christophe Ballif
- École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Photovoltaics and Thin-Film Electronics Laboratory, Neuchatel 2002, CH, Switzerland
| | - Samuel D. Stranks
- Cavendish
Laboratory, University of Cambridge, 19 JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, U.K.
- Department
of Chemical Engineering & Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, U.K.
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12
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Liu Y, Borodinov N, Collins L, Ahmadi M, Kalinin SV, Ovchinnikova OS, Ievlev AV. Role of Decomposition Product Ions in Hysteretic Behavior of Metal Halide Perovskite. ACS NANO 2021; 15:9017-9026. [PMID: 33955732 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c02097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Ion migration is one of the most debated mechanisms and credited with multiple observed phenomena and performance in metal halide perovskites (MHPs) semiconductor devices. However, to date, the migration of ions and their effects on MHPs are not still fully understood, largely due to a lack of direct observations of temporal ion migration. In this work, using direct observation of ion migration in-operando, we observe the hysteretic migration behavior of intrinsic ions (i.e., CH3NH3+ and I-) as well as reveal the migration behavior of CH3NH3+ decomposition ions. We find that CH3NH3+ decomposition products can be affected by light and accumulate at the interfaces under bias. These MHP decomposition products are tightly related to the device performance and stability. Complementary results of time-resolved Kelvin probe force microscopy (tr-KPFM) demonstrate a correlation between dynamics of these interfacial ions and charge carriers. Overall, we find that there are a number of mobile ions including CH3NH3+ decomposition products in MHPs that need to be taken into account when measuring MHP device responses (e.g., charge dynamics) and should be considered in future optimization studies of MHP semiconductor devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongtao Liu
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Nikolay Borodinov
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
| | - Liam Collins
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
| | - Mahshid Ahmadi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Sergei V Kalinin
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
| | - Olga S Ovchinnikova
- Computational Sciences and Engineering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
| | - Anton V Ievlev
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
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13
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Toth D, Hailegnaw B, Richheimer F, Castro FA, Kienberger F, Scharber MC, Wood S, Gramse G. Nanoscale Charge Accumulation and Its Effect on Carrier Dynamics in Tri-cation Perovskite Structures. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:48057-48066. [PMID: 32969644 PMCID: PMC7586297 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c10641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Nanoscale investigations by scanning probe microscopy have provided major contributions to the rapid development of organic-inorganic halide perovskites (OIHP) as optoelectronic devices. Further improvement of device level properties requires a deeper understanding of the performance-limiting mechanisms such as ion migration, phase segregation, and their effects on charge extraction both at the nano- and macroscale. Here, we have studied the dynamic electrical response of Cs0.05(FA0.83MA0.17)0.95PbI3-xBrx perovskite structures by employing conventional and microsecond time-resolved open-loop Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM). Our results indicate strong negative charge carrier trapping upon illumination and very slow (>1 s) relaxation of charges at the grain boundaries. The fast electronic recombination and transport dynamics on the microsecond scale probed by time-resolved open-loop KPFM show diffusion of charge carriers toward grain boundaries and indicate locally higher recombination rates because of intrinsic compositional heterogeneity. The nanoscale electrostatic effects revealed are summarized in a collective model for mixed-halide CsFAMA. Results on multilayer solar cell structures draw direct relations between nanoscale ionic transport, charge accumulation, recombination properties, and the final device performance. Our findings extend the current understanding of complex charge carrier dynamics in stable multication OIHP structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Toth
- Keysight
Technologies GmbH, Linz 4020, Austria
- Applied
Experimental Biophysics, Johannes Kepler
University, Linz 4020, Austria
| | - Bekele Hailegnaw
- Linz
Institute for Organic Solar Cells (LIOS), Johannes Kepler University, Linz 4020, Austria
| | | | | | | | - Markus C. Scharber
- Linz
Institute for Organic Solar Cells (LIOS), Johannes Kepler University, Linz 4020, Austria
| | | | - Georg Gramse
- Keysight
Technologies GmbH, Linz 4020, Austria
- Applied
Experimental Biophysics, Johannes Kepler
University, Linz 4020, Austria
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14
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Yu W, Fu HJ, Mueller T, Brunschwig BS, Lewis NS. Atomic force microscopy: Emerging illuminated and operando techniques for solar fuel research. J Chem Phys 2020; 153:020902. [PMID: 32668946 DOI: 10.1063/5.0009858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Integrated photoelectrochemical devices rely on the synergy between components to efficiently generate sustainable fuels from sunlight. The micro- and/or nanoscale characteristics of the components and their interfaces often control critical processes of the device, such as charge-carrier generation, electron and ion transport, surface potentials, and electrocatalysis. Understanding the spatial properties and structure-property relationships of these components can provide insight into designing scalable and efficient solar fuel components and systems. These processes can be probed ex situ or in situ with nanometer-scale spatial resolution using emerging scanning-probe techniques based on atomic force microscopy (AFM). In this Perspective, we summarize recent developments of AFM-based techniques relevant to solar fuel research. We review recent progress in AFM for (1) steady-state and dynamic light-induced surface photovoltage measurements; (2) nanoelectrical conductive measurements to resolve charge-carrier heterogeneity and junction energetics; (3) operando investigations of morphological changes, as well as surface electrochemical potentials, currents, and photovoltages in liquids. Opportunities for research include: (1) control of ambient conditions for performing AFM measurements; (2) in situ visualization of corrosion and morphological evolution of electrodes; (3) operando AFM techniques to allow nanoscale mapping of local catalytic activities and photo-induced currents and potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weilai Yu
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
| | - Harold J Fu
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
| | - Thomas Mueller
- Bruker Nano Surfaces, 112 Robin Hill Road, Santa Barbara, California 93111, USA
| | - Bruce S Brunschwig
- Beckman Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
| | - Nathan S Lewis
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
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15
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Kim J, Park BW, Baek J, Yun JS, Kwon HW, Seidel J, Min H, Coelho S, Lim S, Huang S, Gaus K, Green MA, Shin TJ, Ho-Baillie AWY, Kim MG, Seok SI. Unveiling the Relationship between the Perovskite Precursor Solution and the Resulting Device Performance. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:6251-6260. [PMID: 32129999 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.0c00411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
For the fabrication of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) using a solution process, it is essential to understand the characteristics of the perovskite precursor solution to achieve high performance and reproducibility. The colloids (iodoplumbates) in the perovskite precursors under various conditions were investigated by UV-visible absorption, dynamic light scattering, photoluminescence, and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy techniques. Their local structure was examined by in situ X-ray absorption fine structure studies. Perovskite thin films on a substrate with precursor solutions were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, space-charge-limited current, and Kelvin probe force microscopy. The colloidal properties of the perovskite precursor solutions were found to be directly correlated with the defect concentration and crystallinity of the perovskite film. This work provides guidelines for controlling perovskite films by varying the precursor solution, making it possible to use colloid-engineered lead halide perovskite layers to fabricate efficient PSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jincheol Kim
- Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics (ACAP), School of Photovoltaic and Renewable and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.,New & Renewable Energy Research Center, Korea Electronics Technology Institute, Seongnam 13509, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung-Wook Park
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Eonyang-eup, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongho Baek
- EMBL Australia Node in Single Molecule Science, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Jae Sung Yun
- Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics (ACAP), School of Photovoltaic and Renewable and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Hyoung-Woo Kwon
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Eonyang-eup, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Jan Seidel
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia
| | - Hanul Min
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Eonyang-eup, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Simao Coelho
- EMBL Australia Node in Single Molecule Science, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Sean Lim
- Electron Microscope Unit, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Shujuan Huang
- Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics (ACAP), School of Photovoltaic and Renewable and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Katharina Gaus
- EMBL Australia Node in Single Molecule Science, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Martin A Green
- Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics (ACAP), School of Photovoltaic and Renewable and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Tae Joo Shin
- UNIST Central Research Facilities & School of Natural Science, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Eonyang-eup, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Anita W Y Ho-Baillie
- Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics (ACAP), School of Photovoltaic and Renewable and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Min Gyu Kim
- Beamline Research Division, Pohang Accelerator Laboratory (PAL), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Il Seok
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Eonyang-eup, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
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16
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Wang S, Cao H, Liu X, Liu Y, Tao T, Sun J, Zhang M. Strontium Chloride-Passivated Perovskite Thin Films for Efficient Solar Cells with Power Conversion Efficiency over 21% and Superior Stability. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:3661-3669. [PMID: 31884784 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b20054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Industrialization of perovskite solar cells is constrained by adverse stability in the air. Herein, we report effective strontium chloride (SrCl2) passivation upon HC(NH2)2-CH3NH3 (FA-MA)-based perovskite thin films for the suppression of nonradiative recombination. Moreover, the recombination dynamics, crystallinity, carrier transport, morphology, and the elemental stoichiometry of this film were systematically studied. By optimizing the concentration of SrCl2, the corresponding devices exhibited an increased open-circuit voltage (1.00 V vs 1.09 V), consistent with the enhanced photoluminescence lifetime. The champion passivated device showed an ascendant power conversion efficiency (PCE) about 21.11%, with over 90% retention of the primal PCE in dry air after 1000 h of aging with 20-30% humidity. A superior stability and an accelerated electron/hole-extraction ability were further observed by time-resolved photoluminescence spectroscopy.
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17
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Huang B, Esfahani EN, Yu J, Gerwe BS, Adler SB, Li J. High-throughput sequential excitation for nanoscale mapping of electrochemical strain in granular ceria. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:23188-23196. [PMID: 31778138 DOI: 10.1039/c9nr07438d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Dynamic strain based atomic force microscopy (AFM) modes often fail at the interfaces where the most interesting physics occurs because of their incapability of tracking contact resonance accurately under rough topography. To overcome this difficulty, we develop a high-throughput sequential excitation AFM that captures contact dynamics of probe-sample interactions with high fidelity and efficiency, acquiring the spectrum of data on each pixel over a range of frequencies that are excited in a sequential manner. Using electrochemically active granular ceria as an example, we map both linear and quadratic electrochemical strain accurately across grain boundaries with high spatial resolution where the conventional approach fails. The enhanced electrochemical responses point to the accumulation of small polarons in the space charge region at the grain boundaries, thought to be responsible for the enhanced electronic conductivity in nanocrystalline ceria. The spectrum of data can be processed very efficiently by physics-informed principal component analysis (PCA), speeding data processing by several orders of magnitude. This approach can be applied to a variety of AFM modes for studying a wide range of materials and structures on the nanoscale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyuan Huang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA. and Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Nanobiomechanics, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Ehsan Nasr Esfahani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
| | - Junxi Yu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Nanobiomechanics, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China and Key Laboratory of Low Dimensional Materials and Application Technology of Ministry of Education, and School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan, Hunan 411105, China
| | - Brian S Gerwe
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Stuart B Adler
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Jiangyu Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA. and Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Nanobiomechanics, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
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