Determination of Nitrofuran Metabolites in Fish by Ultraperformance Liquid Chromatography-Photodiode Array Detection with Thermostatic Ultrasound-Assisted Derivatization

An ultrasensitive electrochemical sensor based on NiFe-LDH-MXene and ruthenium nanoparticles composite for detection of nitrofurantoin in food samples

The excessive use of nitrofurantoin (NFT) represents a threat to ecosystems and food safety, making it necessary to develop efficient and accurate detection methods. Herein, the Ru/NiFe-LDH-MXene/SPCE electrode was successfully synthesized by one-step electrodeposition and employed to the NFT electrochemical sensing. Combining 2D MXenes with multifunctional 2D layered double hydroxides (LDHs) creates synergistic interactions within the MXene-LDH heterostructures, modifying the electrochemical performance. Furthermore, the incorporation of noble metal nanoparticles and nanoclusters can significantly enhance electrochemical performance by promoting favorable interactions at the metal-carrier interface and optimizing the rearrangement of electronic structure. Based on this, the developed Ru/NiFe-LDH-MXene/SPCE sensor demonstrates remarkable sensitivity (152.44 μA μM-1 cm-2) and an ultralow detection limit (2.2 nM). Notably, the sensor was employed for NFT detection in food samples with satisfactory recoveries, making it a promising electrochemical sensor for the detection of NFT.

Simultaneous detection of three nitrofuran antibiotics by the lateral flow immunoassay based on europium nanoparticles in aquatic products

Nitrofuran (NF) antibiotics have been banned worldwide in aquaculture due to their potential carcinogenicity and mutagenicity. Because of the short half-life of NF antibiotics, an easy and sensitive multiple lateral flow immunoassay (mLFIA) based on europium nanoparticles (EuNPs) has been successfully established to simultaneously and quantitatively detect 3-amino-5-morpholinomethyl-2-oxazolidinone (AMOZ), 3-amino-2-oxazolidinone (AOZ) and sodium nifurstylenate (NFS) in aquatic products. The EuNP-mLFIA assay was accomplished within 10 min. The limits of detection (LODs) for AOZ, AMOZ and NFS were 0.013, 0.019 and 0.023 ng/mL, respectively. The average recoveries of AOZ, AMOZ and NFS were 98.0-104.4%, 96.0-102.6% and 98.0-102.8%, respectively. It showed satisfactory consistency, and the feasibility was validated by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Briefly, this method will become a powerful tool for monitoring multiple NF antibiotics and provide promising applications in the field of food safety and environmental testing.

Research progress on metabolites of nitrofurazone in aquatic products

The carcinogenic and teratogenic risks of nitrofurazone (NFZ) led to its restriction in aquatic products. Semicarbazide (SEM), one of its metabolites, is a primary focus of modern monitoring techniques. However, the SEM residue in aquatic products is believed to be formed through endogenous mechanisms, especially for aquatic crustaceans. In this article, we will discuss the source of SEM, including its usage as an antibiotic in aquatic products (nitrofurazone), its production during food processing (azodicarbonamide and hypochlorite treatment), its occurrence naturally in the body, and its intake from the environment. SEM detection techniques were divided into three groups: derivatization, extraction/purification, and analytical methods. Applications based on liquid chromatography and its tandem mass spectrometry, immunoassay, and electrochemical methods were outlined, as were the use of various derivatives and their assisted derivatization, as well as extraction and purification techniques based on liquid-liquid extraction and solid-phase extraction. The difficulties of implementing SEM for nitrofurazone monitoring in aquatic products from crustaceans are also discussed. Possible new markers and methods for detecting them are discussed. Finally, the present research on monitoring illicit nitrofurazone usage through its metabolites is summarised, and potential problems that need to be overcome by continuing research are proposed with an eye toward giving references for future studies.

Aqueous fate of furaltadone: Kinetics, high-resolution mass spectrometry - based elucidation and toxicity assessment of photoproducts

Furaltadone (FTD) is an antibiotic belonging to the nitrofurans group. It has been broadly used in livestock and aquaculture for therapeutic purposes, as well as for stimulating promotion. Although the European Union has imposed restrictions on the use of FTD since 1995 due to concerns regarding its toxicity, in many cases FTD has been excessively and/or illegally applied in productive animals in developing countries, because of its high efficacy and low-cost. Unlike other nitrofuran compounds, the hydrolytic and photolytic behavior of FTD in natural aquatic systems has not been thoroughly investigated. To this end, hydrolysis in different pH values and photolysis in aquatic environment, including lake, river and sea water have been both examined. Hydrolysis was found to have an insignificant impact on degradation of FTD in the aquatic environment relevant pH values, whereas indirect photolysis proved to be the main route of its elimination. The identification of tentative photoproducts (PPs) was performed using ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled to hybrid LTQ/Orbitrap high resolution mass spectrometry. A possible pathway for photolytic transformation of FTD was proposed. Additionally, in silico simulations were used to evaluate the toxicity such as the mutagenicity of FTD and PPs. Complementary to the low-cost and time-limited simulations, an in vitro method (Vibrio Fischeri bioluminescence) was also used to assess ecotoxicity.

Facile synthesis of triazine-based porous organic polymer for the extraction and determination of nitrofuran metabolites residues from meat samples with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry

In this work, a novel triazine-based porous organic polymers, TAPT-BPDD, was firstly synthesized by a facile method at room temperature. After characterized by FT-IR, FE-SEM, XRPD, TGA, and nitrogen-sorption experiments, TAPT-BPDD was applied as solid-phase extraction (SPE) adsorbent for the extraction of four trace nitrofuran metabolites (NFMs) from meat samples. The key parameters including the adsorbent dosage, sample pH, type and volume of eluents, type of washing solvents were evaluated in the extraction process. Combined with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS) analysis, good linear relationship (1-50 µg·kg^-1, R²>0.9925) and low limits of detection (LODs, 0.05-0.56 µg·kg^-1) were obtained under the optimal conditions. When spiked at different level, the recoveries were in the range of 72.7-111.6%. The adsorption isothermal model and extraction selectivity of TAPT-BPDD were also studied in detail. The results showed that TAPT-BPDD was a kind of promising SPE adsorbent for the enrichment of organics in food samples.

Quantum Dot Nanobeads as Multicolor Labels for Simultaneous Multiplex Immunochromatographic Detection of Four Nitrofuran Metabolites in Aquatic Products

A multicolor immunochromatographic assay platform based on quantum dot nanobeads (QBs) for the rapid and simultaneous detection of nitrofuran metabolites in different aquatic products is documented. These metabolites include 3-amino-2-oxazolidinone (AOZ), 1-aminohydantoin (AHD), semicarbazide (SEM), and 3-amino-5-morpholino-methyl-1,3-oxazolidinone (AMOZ). QBs with emission colors of red, yellow, green, and orange were employed and functionalized with the corresponding antibodies to each analyte to develop a multicolor channel. The visual detection limits (cutoff values) of our method for AOZ, AHD, SEM, and AMOZ reached up to 50 ng/mL, which were 2, 20, 20, and 20 times lower than those of traditional colloidal gold test strips, respectively. The test strip is capable of detection within 10 min in real samples while still achieving good stability and specificity. These results demonstrate that the developed multicolor immunochromatographic assay platform is a promising technique for multiplex, highly sensitive, and on-site detection of nitrofuran metabolites.

Immunosensor of Nitrofuran Antibiotics and Their Metabolites in Animal-Derived Foods: A Review

Nitrofuran antibiotics have been widely used in the prevention and treatment of animal diseases due to the bactericidal effect. However, the residual and accumulation of their metabolites in vivo can pose serious health hazards to both humans and animals. Although their usage in feeding and process of food-derived animals have been banned in many countries, their metabolic residues are still frequently detected in materials and products of animal-derived food. Many sensitive and effective detection methods have been developed to deal with the problem. In this work, we summarized various immunological methods for the detection of four nitrofuran metabolites based on different types of detection principles and signal molecules. Furthermore, the development trend of detection technology in animal-derived food is prospected.

Determination of Nitrofuran Metabolites in Complex Food Matrices Using a Rough, Cheap, Easy-Made Wooden-Tip-Based Solid-Phase Microextraction Probe and LC-MS/MS

In this study, a rough, cheap, easy-made wooden-tip-based solid-phase microextraction (SPME) probe was first developed for simultaneous determination of 4 nitrofuran metabolite derivatives in complex food matrices via LC-MS/MS. A simple dip-coating method was used to coat wooden tips with biocompatible polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and N-vinylpyrrolidone-co-divinylbenzene, also known as HLB particles, which served as the extractive substrate in the proposed device. Compared with the traditional solid-phase extraction (SPE) method, the proposed device shortens sample clean-up time, reduces solvent consumption, and decreases testing costs. In addition, the main parameters affecting the SPME procedure efficiency were investigated in detail and the optimal conditions were found. The method was validated using three different food matrixes (pork, croaker, and honey) by spiking with the four metabolites at 0.5, 1.0, and 5.0 μg/kg, as well as their internal standards. The average recovery of all nitrofuran metabolite derivatives ranges from 97.4–109.5% (pork), 87.5–112.7% (croaker), and 98.6–109.0% (honey). Relative standard deviations were all <10% for intraday and interday precision. The values of limit of detection and limit of quantification were, respectively, ranging from 0.011 to 0.123 and 0.033 to 0.369 μg/kg (pork), 0.009 to 0.112 and 0.027 to 0.339 μg/kg (croaker), and 0.010 to 0.131 and 0.030 to 0.293 μg/kg (honey). The presented method was applied to the analysis of real positive samples.

Determination of Antibiotic Residues in Aquaculture Products by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry: Recent Trends and Developments from 2010 to 2020

The issue of antibiotic residues in aquaculture products has aroused much concern over the last decade. The residues can remain in food and enter the human body through the food chain, posing great risks to public health. For the safety of foods and products, many countries have issued maximum residue limits and banned lists for antibiotics in aquaculture products. Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) has been widely used for the determination of trace antibiotic residues due to its high sensitivity, selectivity and throughput. However, considering its matrix effects during quantitative measurements, it has high requirements for sample pre-treatment, instrument parameters and quantitative method. This review summarized the application of LC/MS/MS in the detection of antibiotic residues in aquaculture products in the past decade (from 2010 to 2020), including sample pre-treatment techniques such as hydrolysis, derivatization, extraction and purification, mass spectrometry techniques such as triple quadrupole mass spectrometry and high-resolution mass spectrometry as well as status of matrix certified reference materials (CRMs) and matrix effect.

Melamine functionalised multiwalled carbon nanotubes (M-MWCNTs) as a metal-free electrocatalyst for simultaneous determination of 4-nitrophenol and nitrofurantoin

An innovative melamine functionalised multiwalled carbon nanotube (M-MWCNTs) based electrochemical sensor has been developed for the determination of environmental nitro-aromatic pollutants, such as 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) and nitrofurantoin (NFT).

Quantitative Determination of Nitrofurazone Metabolites in Animal-Derived Foods Based on a Background Fluorescence Quenching Immunochromatographic Assay

Due to their facile synthesis and friendly functionalization, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been applied in all kinds of biosensors. More importantly, these biosensors, with the combination of AuNPs and immunoassay, are expected to be used for the detection of different compounds with low concentrations in complex samples. In this study, a AuNPs-labeled antibody immunoprobe was prepared and combined with a fluorescence-quenching principle and a background fluorescence-quenching immunochromatographic assay (bFQICA), achieving rapid on-site detection. By using a portable fluorescence immunoquantitative analyzer and a QR code with a built-in standard curve, the rapid quantitative determination for nitrofurazone metabolite of semicarbazide (SEM) in animal-derived foods was realized. The limits of detection (LODs) for bFQICA in egg, chicken, fish, and shrimp were 0.09, 0.10, 0.12, and 0.15 μg kg⁻¹ for SEM, respectively, with the linear range of 0.08–0.41 μg L⁻¹, the recoveries ranging from 73.5% to 109.2%, and the coefficient of variation <15%, only taking 13 min for the SEM detection. The analysis of animal-derived foods by bFQICA complied with that of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

Semicarbazide Accumulation, Distribution and Chemical Forms in Scallop (Chlamys farreri) after Seawater Exposure

Simple Summary

Semicarbazide is considered the characteristic metabolite of nitrofurazone and it is often used as a marker to monitor the illegal use of nitrofurazone in foods. Recent studies have indicated that semicarbazide pollution can be introduced in many ways and this compound is a newly recognized pollutant type in the environment that accumulates in aquatic organisms throughout the food chain. Scallops are the third most consumed shellfish in China. We therefore studied the accumulation, chemical forms, and distribution of semicarbazide in scallop tissues. Semicarbazide added to tank seawater resulted in its accumulation in both free and tissue-bound forms and the levels varied according to tissue and were present in all tissues examined. The levels were highest in viscera and the lowest in muscle. The levels of semicarbazide in the environment and in cultured shellfish should be monitored to ensure food quality and safety and human health.

Abstract

Semicarbazide is a newly recognized marine pollutant and has the potential to threaten marine shellfish, the ecological equilibrium and human health. In this study, we examined the accumulation, distribution, and chemical forms of semicarbazide in scallop tissues after exposure to 10, 100, and 1000 μg/L for 30 d at 10 °C. We found a positive correlation between semicarbazide residues in the scallops and the exposure concentration (p < 0.01). Semicarbazide existed primarily in free form in all tissues while bound semicarbazide ranged from 12.1 to 32.7% and was tissue-dependent. The time for semicarbazide to reach steady-state enrichment was 25 days and the highest levels were found in the disgestive gland, followed by gills while levels in gonads and mantle were similar and were lowest in adductor muscle. The bioconcentration factor (BCF) of semicarbazide at low exposure concentrations was higher than that at high exposure concentrations. These results indicated that the scallop can uptake semicarbazide from seawater and this affects the quality and safety of these types of products when used as a food source.

A simplified modification to rapidly determine the residues of nitrofurans and their metabolites in aquatic animals by HPLC triple quadrupole mass spectrometry

A simplified method is described for reducing the analysis time of nitrofurans (NFs) and nitrofuran metabolites (NFMs) in the aquatic animals. Most existing HPLC-MS/MS methods are intended only for NFMs and are based on their fast metabolic transformations. We optimized a method for simultaneously detecting major NFs and their metabolites, including nitrovin (NV) that imply use of an optimized buffer solution. The novel method was validated by six different aquatic animal matrices (loach, catfish, shrimp, lobster, scallop, and eel) spiked with the analytes at 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 μg kg^-1. Recovery rates and %RSDs (relative standard deviations) of 82-97% and 1-8% were observed for NFMs, respectively, with values of 70-96% and 1-8% obtained for furazolidone, furaltadone, nitrofurazone, nitrofurantoin, and NV, respectively. Linearity was observed in the 0.1-20 μg L^-1 range, with correlation coefficients greater than 0.99 recorded for all compounds. The developed method is sensitive, accurate, easier to use, and faster than previous methods when applied to real samples. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first method that can simultaneously determine NFs and their metabolites, as well as NV, using a single-step extraction process.