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Besaratinia A, Caliri AW, Tommasi S. Hydroxychloroquine induces oxidative DNA damage and mutation in mammalian cells. DNA Repair (Amst) 2021; 106:103180. [PMID: 34298488 PMCID: PMC8435022 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2021.103180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Since the early stages of the pandemic, hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), a widely used drug with good safety profile in clinic, has come to the forefront of research on drug repurposing for COVID-19 treatment/prevention. Despite the decades-long use of HCQ in the treatment of diseases, such as malaria and autoimmune disorders, the exact mechanisms of action of this drug are only beginning to be understood. To date, no data are available on the genotoxic potential of HCQ in vitro or in vivo. The present study is the first investigation of the DNA damaging- and mutagenic effects of HCQ in mammalian cells in vitro, at concentrations that are comparable to clinically achievable doses in patient populations. We demonstrate significant induction of a representative oxidative DNA damage (8-oxodG) in primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) treated with HCQ at 5 and 25 μM concentrations (P = 0.020 and P = 0.029, respectively), as determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Furthermore, we show significant mutagenicity of HCQ, manifest as 2.2- and 1.8-fold increases in relative cII mutant frequency in primary and spontaneously immortalized Big Blue® MEFs, respectively, treated with 25 μM dose of this drug (P = 0.005 and P = 0.012, respectively). The observed genotoxic effects of HCQ in vitro, achievable at clinically relevant doses, are novel and important, and may have significant implications for safety monitoring in patient populations. Given the substantial number of the world's population receiving HCQ for the treatment of various chronic diseases or in the context of clinical trials for COVID-19, our findings warrant further investigations into the biological consequences of therapeutic/preventive use of this drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Besaratinia
- Department of Population & Public Health Sciences, USC Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, M/C 9603, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA.
| | - Andrew W Caliri
- Department of Population & Public Health Sciences, USC Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, M/C 9603, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Stella Tommasi
- Department of Population & Public Health Sciences, USC Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, M/C 9603, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
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White PA, Luijten M, Mishima M, Cox JA, Hanna JN, Maertens RM, Zwart EP. In vitro mammalian cell mutation assays based on transgenic reporters: A report of the International Workshop on Genotoxicity Testing (IWGT). MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2019; 847:403039. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Abstract
A number of transgenic animal models and mutation detection systems have been developed for mutagenicity testing of carcinogens in mammalian cells. Of these, transgenic mice and the Lambda (λ) Select cII Mutation Detection System have been employed for mutagenicity experiments by many research groups worldwide. Here, we describe a detailed protocol for the Lambda Select cII mutation assay, which can be applied to cultured cells of transgenic mice/rats or the corresponding animals treated with a chemical/physical agent of interest. The protocol consists of the following steps: (1) isolation of genomic DNA from the cells or organs/tissues of transgenic animals treated in vitro or in vivo, respectively, with a test compound; (2) recovery of the lambda shuttle vector carrying a mutational reporter gene (i.e., cII transgene) from the genomic DNA; (3) packaging of the rescued vectors into infectious bacteriophages; (4) infecting a host bacteria and culturing under selective conditions to allow propagation of the induced cII mutations; and (5) scoring the cII-mutants and DNA sequence analysis to determine the cII mutant frequency and mutation spectrum, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Besaratinia
- Department of Preventive Medicine, USC Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California;
| | - Stella Tommasi
- Department of Preventive Medicine, USC Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California
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Besaratinia A, Zheng A, Bates SE, Tommasi S. Mutation Analysis in Cultured Cells of Transgenic Rodents. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E262. [PMID: 29337872 PMCID: PMC5796208 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19010262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
To comply with guiding principles for the ethical use of animals for experimental research, the field of mutation research has witnessed a shift of interest from large-scale in vivo animal experiments to small-sized in vitro studies. Mutation assays in cultured cells of transgenic rodents constitute, in many ways, viable alternatives to in vivo mutagenicity experiments in the corresponding animals. A variety of transgenic rodent cell culture models and mutation detection systems have been developed for mutagenicity testing of carcinogens. Of these, transgenic Big Blue® (Stratagene Corp., La Jolla, CA, USA, acquired by Agilent Technologies Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA, BioReliance/Sigma-Aldrich Corp., Darmstadt, Germany) mouse embryonic fibroblasts and the λ Select cII Mutation Detection System have been used by many research groups to investigate the mutagenic effects of a wide range of chemical and/or physical carcinogens. Here, we review techniques and principles involved in preparation and culturing of Big Blue® mouse embryonic fibroblasts, treatment in vitro with chemical/physical agent(s) of interest, determination of the cII mutant frequency by the λ Select cII assay and establishment of the mutation spectrum by DNA sequencing. We describe various approaches for data analysis and interpretation of the results. Furthermore, we highlight representative studies in which the Big Blue® mouse cell culture model and the λ Select cII assay have been used for mutagenicity testing of diverse carcinogens. We delineate the advantages of this approach and discuss its limitations, while underscoring auxiliary methods, where applicable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Besaratinia
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, M/C 9603, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
| | - Albert Zheng
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, M/C 9603, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
| | - Steven E Bates
- Department of Cancer Biology, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA.
| | - Stella Tommasi
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, M/C 9603, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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Ke H, Suzuki A, Miyamoto T, Kashima H, Shiozawa T. 4-hydroxy estrogen induces DNA damage on codon 130/131 of PTEN in endometrial carcinoma cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2015; 400:71-7. [PMID: 25449419 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2014.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Revised: 10/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Catechol estrogens, such as 4-hydroxyestradiol (4-OHE2), are estrogen metabolites that form DNA adducts and may induce mutations and subsequent cell transformation in mammary cells; however, little is known about their roles in endometrial carcinogenesis. Furthermore, it remains unclear whether 4-OHE2 is able to induce DNA damage on specific genes involved in carcinogenesis or a 'pro'-mutation status such as microsatellite instability (MSI). Therefore, we modified terminal transferase-dependent PCR by the application of a capillary sequencer to detect DNA damage at the single base level. Using this method, we demonstrated that 4-OHE2 directly induced DNA damage on codon 130/131 in exon 5 of PTEN, which is a mutation hot spot for PTEN in endometrial carcinoma. Whereas, both estradiol and 4-OHE2 treatment did not affect MSI status in immortalized endometrial glandular cells. 4-OHE2 might contribute to endometrial carcinogenesis by inducing PTEN mutation on codon 130/131.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Ke
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, 1 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuexiu, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Akihisa Suzuki
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shinshu University School of Medicine, 3-1-1 Asahi, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Iida Municipal Hospital, 438 Yawatamachi, Iida 395-8502, Japan.
| | - Tsutomu Miyamoto
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shinshu University School of Medicine, 3-1-1 Asahi, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan
| | - Hiroyasu Kashima
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shinshu University School of Medicine, 3-1-1 Asahi, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan
| | - Tanri Shiozawa
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shinshu University School of Medicine, 3-1-1 Asahi, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan
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Williams-Brown MY, Salih SM, Xu X, Veenstra TD, Saeed M, Theiler SK, Diaz-Arrastia CR, Salama SA. The effect of tamoxifen and raloxifene on estrogen metabolism and endometrial cancer risk. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2011; 126:78-86. [PMID: 21600284 PMCID: PMC3421458 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2010] [Revised: 03/22/2011] [Accepted: 05/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) demonstrate differential endometrial cancer (EC) risk. While tamoxifen (TAM) use increases the risk of endometrial hyperplasia and malignancy, raloxifene (RAL) has neutral effects on the uterus. How TAM increases the risk of EC and why TAM and RAL differentially modulate the risk for EC, however, remain elusive. Here, we tested the hypothesis that TAM increases the risk for EC, at least in part, by enhancing the local estrogen biosynthesis and directing estrogen metabolism towards the formation of genotoxic and hormonally active estrogen metabolites. In addition, the differential effects of TAM and RAL in EC risk are attributed to their differential effect on estrogen metabolism/metabolites. The endometrial cancer cell line (Ishikawa cells) and the nonmalignant immortalized human endometrial glandular cell line (EM1) were used for the study. The profile of estrogen/estrogen metabolites (EM), depurinating estrogen-DNA adducts, and the expression of estrogen-metabolizing enzymes in cells treated with 17β-estradiol (E2) alone or in combination with TAM or RAL were investigated using high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS(2)), ultraperformance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS), and Western blot analysis, respectively. TAM significantly increased the total EM and enhanced the formation of hormonally active and carcinogenic estrogen metabolites, 4-hydroxestrone (4-OHE1) and 16α-hydroxyestrone, with concomitant reduction in the formation of antiestrogenic and anticarcinogenic 2-hydroxyestradiol and 2-methoxyestradiol. Furthermore, TAM increased the formation of depurinating estrogen-DNA adducts 4-OHE1 [2]-1-N7Guanine and 4-OHE1 [2]-1-N3 Adenine. TAM-induced alteration in EM and depurinating DNA adduct formation is associated with altered expression of estrogen metabolizing enzymes CYP1A1, CYP1B1, COMT, NQO1, and SF-1 as revealed by Western blot analysis. In contrast to TAM, RAL has minimal effect on EM, estrogen-DNA adduct formation, or estrogen-metabolizing enzymes expression. These data show that TAM perturbs the balance of estrogen-metabolizing enzymes and alters the disposition of estrogen metabolites, which can explain, at least in part, the mechanism for TAM-induced EC. These results also implicate the differential effect of TAM and RAL on estrogen metabolism/metabolites as a potential mechanism for their disparate effects on the endometrium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marian Y Williams-Brown
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, United States.
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Cai C, Chen X, Ge F. Analysis of interaction between tamoxifen and ctDNA in vitro by multi-spectroscopic methods. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2010; 76:202-206. [PMID: 20392665 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2010.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2009] [Revised: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 03/15/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Multi-spectroscopic methods including resonance light scattering (RLS), ultraviolet spectra (UV), fluorescence spectra, (1)H NMR spectroscopy, coupled with thermo-denaturation experiments were firstly used to study the interaction of antitumor drug tamoxifen (TMX) with calf thymus (ctDNA) in acetate buffer solutions (pH 4.55). The interaction of TMX with ctDNA could cause a significant enhancement of RLS intensity, the hyperchromic effect, red shift of absorption spectra and the fluorescence quenching of TMX, indicating that there is an inserting interaction between TMX and ctDNA. This inference was confirmed by (1)H NMR spectroscopy. The chemical shift of the benzene proton changes significantly which indicates that TMX could insert into the base pairs of ctDNA. These studies are valuable for a better understanding the mode of TMX-ctDNA interaction further, which are important and useful for designing of new ctDNA targeted drug. And the antitumor drug TMX inserted directly into ctDNA in vitro, which can provide a lot of useful information to explore the development of new and highly effective anti-cancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changqun Cai
- College of Chemistry, Xiangtan University, Key Laboratory of Environmentally Friendly Chemistry and Applications of Ministry of Education, Xiangtan, Hunan 411105, PR China
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Badia E, Oliva J, Balaguer P, Cavaillès V. Tamoxifen resistance and epigenetic modifications in breast cancer cell lines. Curr Med Chem 2008; 14:3035-45. [PMID: 18220739 DOI: 10.2174/092986707782794023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Epigenetic mechanisms play crucial roles in many processes, including neoplasia, genomic imprinting, gene silencing, differentiation, embryogenesis and X chromosome inactivation. Their relevance in human disease and therapy has grown rapidly with the recent emergence of drugs that target for example DNA methylation or histone acetylation. Epigenetic effects were also recently highlighted by the deciphering of the mechanism of action of steroid hormones and anti-hormones acting through nuclear receptors. In this review, we focus on the epigenetic effects associated with long-term treatment of breast cancer cells with the antiestrogen (AE) tamoxifen, in the context of resistance appearance. We summarize the data obtained with a model cell line developed in our laboratory supporting a role for HP1 proteins in the irreversible inactivation of gene expression by long-term treatment with AE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Badia
- Université Montpellier I, Montpellier, F-34000 France.
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