Cytotoxicity and specificity of directed toxins composed of diphtheria toxin and the EGF-like domain of heregulin beta1

A comprehensive review of heregulins, HER3, and HER4 as potential therapeutic targets in cancer

Heregulins (HRGs) bind to the receptors HER3 or HER4, induce receptor dimerization, and trigger downstream signaling that leads to tumor progression and resistance to targeted therapies. Increased expression of HRGs has been associated with worse clinical prognosis; therefore, attempts to block HRG-dependent tumor growth have been pursued. This manuscript summarizes the function and signaling of HRGs and review the preclinical evidence of its involvement in carcinogenesis, prognosis, and treatment resistance in several malignancies such as colorectal cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, ovarian cancer, and breast cancer. Agents in preclinical development and clinical trials of novel therapeutics targeting HRG-dependent signaling are also discussed, including anti-HER3 and -HER4 antibodies, anti-metalloproteinase agents, and HRG fusion proteins. Although several trials have indicated an acceptable safety profile, translating preclinical findings into clinical practice remains a challenge in this field, possibly due to the complexity of downstream signaling and patterns of HRG, HER3 and HER4 expression in different cancer subtypes. Improving patient selection through biomarkers and understanding the resistance mechanisms may translate into significant clinical benefits in the near future.

The growth factor receptor ERBB2 regulates mitochondrial activity on a signaling time scale

Overexpression of the ERBB2 receptor tyrosine kinase and the mitochondrial inner membrane protein UCP2 occurs frequently in aggressive cancers with dysfunctional mitochondria. Overexpressed ERBB2 signals constitutively and elevated UCP2 can uncouple mitochondria and alleviate oxidative stress. However, the physiological contributions of UCP2 and ERBB2 at the low expression levels that are typical of most tissues, as well as the path to oncogenic deregulation, are poorly understood. We now show that ERBB2 directly controls UCP2 levels, both at low physiological levels and oncogenic overexpression. At low levels of receptor and UCP2, ligand stimulation creates a distinct temporal response pattern driven by the opposing forces of translational suppression of the exceptionally short lived UCP2 protein and a time delayed transcriptional up-regulation. The latter becomes dominant through constitutive signaling by overexpressed ERBB2, resulting in high levels of UCP2 that contribute mitochondrial uncoupling. By contrast, ligand stimulation of non-overexpressed ERBB2 transiently removes UCP2 and paradoxically reduces the mitochondrial membrane potential, oxygen consumption, and OXPHOS on a signaling time scale. However, neither the transporter activity nor down-regulation of already low UCP2 levels drive this reduction in mitochondrial activity. Instead, UCP2 is required to establish mitochondria that are capable of responding to ligand. UCP2 knockdown impairs proliferation at high glucose but its absence specifically impairs ligand-induced growth when glucose levels fluctuate. These findings demonstrate the ability of growth factor signaling to control oxidative phosphorylation on a signaling time scale and point toward a non-transporter role for low levels of UCP2 in establishing dynamic response capability.

HER3 targeting of adenovirus by fiber modification increases infection of breast cancer cells in vitro, but not following intratumoral injection in mice

Despite the tremendous potential of adenovirus (Ad) as a delivery vector for cancer gene therapy, its use in clinical settings has been limited, mainly as a result of the limited infectivity in many tumors and the wide tissue tropism associated with Ad. To modify the tropism of the virus, we have inserted the epidermal growth factor-like domain of the human heregulin-α (HRG) into the HI loop of Ad5 fiber. This insertion had no adverse effect on fiber trimerization nor did it affect incorporation of the modified fiber into infectious viral particles. Virions bearing modified fiber displayed growth characteristics and viral yields indistinguishable from those of wild-type (wt) virus. Most importantly, HRG-tagged virions showed enhanced infection of cells expressing the cognate receptors HER3/ErbB3 and HER4/ErbB4. This was significantly reduced in the presence of soluble HRG. Furthermore, HER3-expressing Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells were transduced by the HRG-modified virus, but not by wt virus. In contrast, CHO cells expressing the coxsackie-Ad receptor were transduced with both viruses. However, infection of an in vivo breast cancer xenograft model after intratumoral injection was similar with both viruses, suggesting that the tumor microenvironment and/or the route of delivery have important roles in infection of target cells with fiber-modified Ads.

Cytotoxicity of a recombinant fusion protein of adenovirus early region 4 open reading frame 4 (E4orf4) and human epidermal growth factor on p53-deficient tumor cells

Adenovirus early region 4 open reading frame 4 (E4orf4) protein is a novel cell death factor that selectively induces p53-independent apoptosis in cancer cells, but not in normal human cells. This study presents an approach for inhibiting p53-deficient tumor cell growth by using protein-based E4orf4 that had been genetically fused to epidermal growth factor (EGF) to ensure selective targeting of EGF receptor-overexpressing tumor cells. EGF-E4orf4 enables binding onto the cell surface and is then internalized into Saos-2 cells. The success of the process had been demonstrated by immunofluorescence assay and confocal laser microscopy. After prolonged exposure, E4orf4 remained mostly in the nuclei. EGF-E4orf4 treatment of Saos-2 cells showed dose-dependent cytotoxicity. Nearly 50% of the Saos-2 cells were killed at a concentration of 250 nmol/l. In contrast, EGF-E4orf4 showed no significant inhibitory effect iresn primary cells of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. To confirm the ability of EGF-E4orf4 to induce apoptosis, DNA fragmentation was detected using BrdUTP end-labeling. Flow cytometric analysis revealed a significant increase of apoptotic cells in Saos-2 cells treated with EGF-E4orf4, but not in the case of cells cultured in plain medium (t=0.028, P<0.05). In conclusion, these preliminary results indicate that EGF-E4orf4 could show promise as a new reagent that is more efficient and less toxic in anti-cancer therapy.

The N-terminal domains of neuregulin 1 confer signal attenuation

Degradation of activated ERBB receptors is an important mechanism for signal attenuation. However, compared with epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor, the ERBB2/ERBB3 signaling pair is considered to be attenuation-deficient. The ERBB2/ERBB3 ligands of the neuregulin family rely on an EGF-like domain for signaling and are generated from larger membrane-bound precursors. In contrast to EGF, which is processed to yield a 6-kDa peptide ligand, mature neuregulins retain a variety of segments N-terminal to the EGF-like domain. Here we evaluate the role of the N-terminal domain of neuregulin 1 in signaling and turnover of ERBB2/ERBB3. Our data suggest that whereas the EGF-like domain of neuregulin 1 is required and sufficient for the formation of active receptor heterodimers, the presence of the N-terminal Ig-like domain is required for efficient signal attenuation. This manifests itself for both ERBB2 and ERBB3 but is more pronounced and coupled directly to degradation for ERBB3. When stimulated with only the EGF-like domain, ERBB3 shows degradation rates comparable with constitutive turnover, but stimulation with full-length neuregulin 1 resulted in receptor degradation at rates that are comparable with activated EGF receptor. Most of the enhancement in down-regulation was maintained after replacing the Ig-like domain with a thioredoxin protein of comparable size but different amino acid composition, suggesting that the physical presence but not specific properties of the Ig-like domain are needed. This sequence-independent effect of the N-terminal domain correlates with an enhanced ability of full-size neuregulin 1 to disrupt higher order oligomers of the ERBB3 extracellular domains in vitro.

Oligomers of ERBB3 have two distinct interfaces that differ in their sensitivity to disruption by heregulin

ErbB receptors associate in a ligand-dependent or -independent manner, and overexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor (ErbB1) or ErbB2 results in ligand-independent activation. Ligand-independent activation is poorly understood, and dimerization alone is not sufficient for activation. ErbB receptors also form higher order oligomers, but the mechanism of oligomer formation and their contribution to signaling are not known. The kinase-deficient ErbB3 as well as its extracellular domains are particularly prone to ligand-independent oligomerization, and oligomers are destabilized by binding of the ligand heregulin. In contrast, ligand binding facilitates heterodimerization with ErbB2 and is expected to stabilize an extended conformation of the ErbB3 extracellular domain (ECD) in which the dimerization interface is exposed. In the absence of ligand, ErbB3 can adopt a closed conformation that is held together by an intramolecular tether. We used a constitutively extended form of the ErbB3-ECD to analyze the conformation of the ECD in oligomers and the mechanism of oligomer disruption by heregulin. The extended conformation of the ECD forms oligomers more readily, suggesting the crystallographically defined dimer interface is one of the interfaces involved in oligomerization. Heregulin destabilizes oligomeric complexes but not dimers, which are neither stabilized nor disrupted by ligand binding, indicating a distinct second interface in oligomers of ErbB3. Cross-linking and activation studies on membrane-embedded ErbB3/ErbB2 chimeras confirm this dual effect of heregulin. Most of the ErbB3-ECD on the cell surface is apparently kept in an open conformation through oligomerization, and the resulting oligomers adopt a conformation representing a state of reduced activity.

Formation of polyomavirus-like particles with different VP1 molecules that bind the urokinase plasminogen activator receptor

Icosahedral virus-like particles formed by the self-assembly of polyomavirus capsid proteins (Py-VLPs) can serve as useful nanostructures for delivering nucleic acids, proteins, and pharmaceuticals into animal cells and tissues. Four predominant surface-exposed loops in the VP1 structure offer potential sites to display sequences that might contribute new targeting specificities. Introduction into each of these loops of sequences derived from the amino-terminal fragment of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) or a related phage display peptide reduced the solubility of VP1 molecules when expressed in insect cells, and insertions into the EF loop reduced VP1 solubility least. Coexpression in insect cells of the uPA-VP1 molecules and VP1 containing a FLAG epitope in the HI loop permitted the formation of heterotypic Py-VLPs containing uPA-VP1 and FLAG-VP1. These heterotypic VLPs bound to uPAR on the surfaces of animal cells. Heterotypic Py-VLPs containing ligands for multiple cell surface receptors should be useful for targeting specific cells and tissues.

Identification of a heregulin binding site in HER3 extracellular domain

HER3 (also known as c-Erb-b3) is a type I receptor tyrosine kinase similar in sequence to the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor. The extracellular segment of this transmembrane receptor contains four domains. Domains I and II are similar in sequence to domains III and IV, respectively, and domains II and IV are cysteine-rich. We show that the EGF-like domain of heregulin (hrg) binds to domains I and II of HER3, in contrast to the EGF receptor, for which prior studies have shown that a construct consisting of domains III and portions of domain IV binds EGF. Next, we identified a putative hrg binding site by limited proteolysis of the recombinant extracellular domains of HER3 (HER3-ECD(I-IV)) in both the presence and absence of hrg. In the absence of hrg, HER3-ECD(I-IV) is cleaved after position Tyr(50), near the beginning of domain I. Binding of hrg to HER3-ECD(I-IV) fully protects position Tyr(50) from proteolysis. To confirm that domain I contains a hrg binding site, we expressed domains I and II (HER3-ECD(I-II)) and find that it binds hrg with 68 nm affinity. These data suggest that domains I and II of HER3-ECD(I-IV) act as a functional unit in folding and binding of hrg. Thus, our biochemical findings reinforce the structural hypothesis of others that HER3-ECD(I-IV) is similar to the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R), as follows: 1) The protected cleavage site in HER3-ECD(I-IV) corresponds to a binding footprint in domain I of IGF-1R; 2) HER3-ECD(I-II) binds hrg with a 68 nm dissociation constant, supporting the hypothesis that domain I is involved in ligand binding; and 3) the large accessible surface area (1749 A) of domain L1 of IGF-1R that is buried by domain S1, as well as the presence of conserved contacts in this interface of type 1 RTKs, suggests that domains L1 and S1 of IGF-1R function as a unit as observed for HER3-ECD(I-II). Our results are consistent with the proposal that HER3 has a structure similar to IGF-1R and binds ligand at a site in corresponding domains.

The Raf signal transduction cascade as a target for chemotherapeutic intervention in growth factor-responsive tumors

This review focuses on the Ras-Raf-mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK)-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signal transduction pathway and the consequences of its unregulation in the development of cancer. The roles of some of the cell membrane receptors involved in the activation of this pathway, the G-protein Ras, the Raf, MEK and ERK kinases, the phosphatases that regulate these kinases, as well as the downstream transcription factors that become activated, are discussed. The roles of the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK pathway in the regulation of apoptosis and cell cycle progression are also analyzed. In addition, potential targets for pharmacological intervention in growth factor-responsive cells are evaluated.

Analysis of heregulin symmetry by weighted evolutionary tracing

Heregulins are members of the protein family of EGF-like growth and differentiation factors. The primary cell-surface targets of heregulins are heterodimers of the EGF-receptor homolog HER2 with either HER3 or HER4. We used a weighted evolutionary trace analysis to identify structural features that distinguish the EGF-like domain (hrg) of heregulins from other members of the EGF family. In this analysis, each amino acid sequence is weighted according to its uniqueness and the variability in each position is assigned by an amino acid substitution matrix. Conserved residues in heregulin that are variable in other EGF-like domains are considered possible specificity-conferring residues. This analysis identifies two clusters of residues at the foot of the boot-shaped hrg domain. The residues in one cluster are recruited from the N-terminus; those in the other are from the ohm-loop region and show a weak sequence similarity to the N-terminal residues at the opposite side of the boot. The remaining residues with high conservation scores distribute themselves into these two distinct surfaces on hrg. This pseudo-twofold symmetry and the presence of two distinct interfaces may reflect the preference of hrg for heterodimeric versus homodimeric HER complexes.