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Yao YN, Wang Y, Zhang H, Gao Y, Zhang T, Kannan K. A review of sources, pathways, and toxic effects of human exposure to benzophenone ultraviolet light filters. ECO-ENVIRONMENT & HEALTH (ONLINE) 2024; 3:30-44. [PMID: 38162868 PMCID: PMC10757257 DOI: 10.1016/j.eehl.2023.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Benzophenone ultraviolet light filters (BPs) are high-production-volume chemicals extensively used in personal care products, leading to widespread human exposure. Given their estrogenic properties, the potential health risks associated with exposure to BPs have become a public health concern. This review aims to summarize sources and pathways of exposure to BPs and associated health risks. Dermal exposure, primarily through the use of sunscreens, constitutes a major pathway for BP exposure. At a recommended application rate, dermal exposure of BP-3 via the application of sunscreens may reach or exceed the suggested reference dose. Other exposure pathways to BPs, such as drinking water, seafood, and packaged foods, contribute minimal to the overall dose. Inhalation is a minor pathway of exposure; however, its contribution cannot be ignored. Human exposure to BPs is an order of magnitude higher in North America than in Asia and Europe. Studies conducted on laboratory animals and cells have consistently demonstrated the toxic effects of BP exposure. BPs are estrogenic and elicit reproductive and developmental toxicities. Furthermore, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and carcinogenicity have been reported from chronic BP exposure. In addition to animal and cell studies, epidemiological investigations have identified associations between BPs and couples' fecundity and other reproductive disorders, as well as adverse birth outcomes. Further studies are urgently needed to understand the risks posed by BPs on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Nan Yao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - You Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Hengling Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Yanxia Gao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Kurunthachalam Kannan
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, NY 12237, USA
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2
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Silva PV, Silva ARR, Clark NJ, Vassallo J, Baccaro M, Medvešček N, Grgić M, Ferreira A, Busquets-Fité M, Jurkschat K, Papadiamantis AG, Puntes V, Lynch I, Svendsen C, van den Brink NW, Handy RD, van Gestel CAM, Loureiro S. Toxicokinetics and bioaccumulation of silver sulfide nanoparticles in benthic invertebrates in an indoor stream mesocosm. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 873:162160. [PMID: 36775152 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Mesocosms allow the simulation of environmentally relevant conditions and can be used to establish more realistic scenarios of organism exposure to nanoparticles. An indoor mesocosm experiment simulating an aquatic stream ecosystem was conducted to assess the toxicokinetics and bioaccumulation of silver sulfide nanoparticles (Ag2S NPs) and AgNO3 in the freshwater invertebrates Girardia tigrina, Physa acuta and Chironomus riparius, and determine if previous single-species tests can predict bioaccumulation in the mesocosm. Water was daily spiked at 10 μg Ag L-1. Ag concentrations in water and sediment reached values of 13.4 μg Ag L-1 and 0.30 μg Ag g-1 in the Ag2S NP exposure, and 12.8 μg Ag L-1 and 0.20 μg Ag g-1 in the AgNO3. Silver was bioaccumulated by the species from both treatments, but with approximately 1.5, 3 and 11 times higher body Ag concentrations in AgNO3 compared to Ag2S NP exposures in snails, chironomids and planarians, respectively. In the Ag2S NP exposures, the observed uptake was probably of the particulate form. This demonstrates that this more environmentally relevant Ag nanoform may be bioavailable for uptake by benthic organisms. Interspecies interactions likely occurred, namely predation (planarians fed on chironomids and snails), which somehow influenced Ag uptake/bioaccumulation, possibly by altering organisms´ foraging behaviour. Higher Ag uptake rate constants were determined for AgNO3 (0.64, 80.4 and 1.12 Lwater g-1organism day-1) than for Ag2S NPs (0.05, 2.65 and 0.32 Lwater g-1organism day-1) for planarians, snails and chironomids, respectively. Biomagnification under environmentally realistic exposure seemed to be low, although it was likely to occur in the food chain P. acuta to G. tigrina exposed to AgNO3. Single-species tests generally could not reliably predict Ag bioaccumulation in the more complex mesocosm scenario. This study provides methodologies/data to better understand exposure, toxicokinetics and bioaccumulation of Ag in complex systems, reinforcing the need to use mesocosm studies to improve the risk assessment of environmental contaminants, specifically NPs, in aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia V Silva
- Department of Biology and CESAM, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Ana Rita R Silva
- Department of Biology and CESAM, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Nathaniel J Clark
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
| | - Joanne Vassallo
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
| | - Marta Baccaro
- Department of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Neja Medvešček
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Magdalena Grgić
- Department of Biology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Cara Hadrijana 8/A, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Abel Ferreira
- Department of Biology and CESAM, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | | | - Kerstin Jurkschat
- Department of Materials, Oxford University Begbroke Science Park, Begbroke, UK
| | - Anastasios G Papadiamantis
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, B15 2TT Birmingham, UK; NovaMechanics Ltd., 1065 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Victor Puntes
- Institut Català de Nanociència i Nanotecnologia (ICN2), CSIC, The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain; Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), 08010 Barcelona, Spain; Vall d'Hebron Institut de Recerca (VHIR), 08035 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Iseult Lynch
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, B15 2TT Birmingham, UK
| | - Claus Svendsen
- Centre of Ecology and Hydrology (CEH-NERC), Wallingford, UK
| | | | - Richard D Handy
- School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
| | - Cornelis A M van Gestel
- Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment (A-LIFE), Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Susana Loureiro
- Department of Biology and CESAM, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
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Masoner JR, Kolpin DW, Cozzarelli IM, Bradley PM, Arnall BB, Forshay KJ, Gray JL, Groves JF, Hladik ML, Hubbard LE, Iwanowicz LR, Jaeschke JB, Lane RF, McCleskey RB, Polite BF, Roth DA, Pettijohn MB, Wilson MC. Contaminant Exposure and Transport from Three Potential Reuse Waters within a Single Watershed. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:1353-1365. [PMID: 36626647 PMCID: PMC9878729 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Global demand for safe and sustainable water supplies necessitates a better understanding of contaminant exposures in potential reuse waters. In this study, we compared exposures and load contributions to surface water from the discharge of three reuse waters (wastewater effluent, urban stormwater, and agricultural runoff). Results document substantial and varying organic-chemical contribution to surface water from effluent discharges (e.g., disinfection byproducts [DBP], prescription pharmaceuticals, industrial/household chemicals), urban stormwater (e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, nonprescription pharmaceuticals), and agricultural runoff (e.g., pesticides). Excluding DBPs, episodic storm-event organic concentrations and loads from urban stormwater were comparable to and often exceeded those of daily wastewater-effluent discharges. We also assessed if wastewater-effluent irrigation to corn resulted in measurable effects on organic-chemical concentrations in rain-induced agricultural runoff and harvested feedstock. Overall, the target-organic load of 491 g from wastewater-effluent irrigation to the study corn field during the 2019 growing season did not produce substantial dissolved organic-contaminant contributions in subsequent rain-induced runoff events. Out of the 140 detected organics in source wastewater-effluent irrigation, only imidacloprid and estrone had concentrations that resulted in observable differences between rain-induced agricultural runoff from the effluent-irrigated and nonirrigated corn fields. Analyses of pharmaceuticals and per-/polyfluoroalkyl substances in at-harvest corn-plant samples detected two prescription antibiotics, norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin, at concentrations of 36 and 70 ng/g, respectively, in effluent-irrigated corn-plant samples; no contaminants were detected in noneffluent irrigated corn-plant samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason R. Masoner
- U.S.
Geological Survey, Oklahoma
City, Oklahoma 73116, United States
| | - Dana W. Kolpin
- U.S.
Geological Survey, Iowa City, Iowa 52240, United States
| | | | - Paul M. Bradley
- U.S.
Geological Survey, Columbia, South Carolina 29210, United States
| | - Brian B. Arnall
- Oklahoma
State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, United States
| | - Kenneth J. Forshay
- U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Ada, Oklahoma 74820, United States
| | - James L. Gray
- U.S.
Geological Survey, Lakewood, Colorado 80225, United States
| | - Justin F. Groves
- U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Ada, Oklahoma 74820, United States
| | | | | | - Luke R. Iwanowicz
- U.S.
Geological Survey, Kearneysville, West Virginia, 25430, United States
| | | | - Rachael F. Lane
- U.S. Geological
Survey, Lawrence, Kansas 66049, United States
| | | | | | - David A. Roth
- U.S. Geological Survey, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
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Guo Y, Yu RQ, Zhang L, Liang Y, Liu Z, Sun X, Wu Y. Cross-Generational Impacts of Diet Shift on Bisphenol Analogue Loads in Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphins ( Sousa chinensis). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:10764-10774. [PMID: 35861411 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c02222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Bisphenol analogues (BPs) are ubiquitous pollutants to marine organisms as endocrine disruptive chemicals. However, the residue contamination and the trophic transfer of BPs in the apex predator nearshore dolphins are poorly studied. Here, we measured the concentrations of six BPs, including bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol AF (BPAF), bisphenol B (BPB), bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol P (BPP), and bisphenol S (BPS) in the liver of Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis) (n = 75) collected from the Pearl River Estuary during a period with significant dietary changes (2004-2020). BPA and BPAF were the dominant components of the residue ∑BPs in the liver, with a proportion of 80%. Sex, maturity, and stranding location had no significant effects on BP levels. The generalized additive models indicated that BPA levels in juveniles and adults decreased from 2004 to 2013 while increasing from 2013 to 2020. The temporal trend of BPA levels was likely driven by the shift of the dominant diet from Harpadon nehereus to Thryssa spp. The concurrent increase of BPA loads in calves and juveniles and adults over the recent decades suggested that the diet-mediated variations of maternal BPA levels could be redistributed to their offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongwei Guo
- School of Marine Sciences, Zhuhai Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, Pearl River Estuary Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-Sen University, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Zhuhai 519082, China
| | - Ri-Qing Yu
- Department of Biology, Center for Environment, Biodiversity and Conservation, The University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, Texas 75799, United States
| | - Li Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
| | - Yuqin Liang
- School of Marine Sciences, Zhuhai Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, Pearl River Estuary Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-Sen University, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Zhuhai 519082, China
| | - Zhiwei Liu
- School of Ecology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Xian Sun
- School of Marine Sciences, Zhuhai Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, Pearl River Estuary Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-Sen University, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Zhuhai 519082, China
| | - Yuping Wu
- School of Marine Sciences, Zhuhai Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, Pearl River Estuary Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-Sen University, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Zhuhai 519082, China
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5
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Wang H, Xia X, Wang Z, Liu R, Muir DCG, Wang WX. Contribution of Dietary Uptake to PAH Bioaccumulation in a Simplified Pelagic Food Chain: Modeling the Influences of Continuous vs Intermittent Feeding in Zooplankton and Fish. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:1930-1940. [PMID: 33448220 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c06970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Dietary uptake is important for trophic transfer of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the freshwater pelagic ecosystem. In this study, we hypothesized that both the dietary uptake rate and interval significantly influenced its relative contribution to bioaccumulation. We developed a toxicokinetic model framework for the bioaccumulation of deuterated PAHs (PAHs-d10) in aquatic organisms considering different feeding intervals ranging from none for phytoplankton to approximately continuous for zooplankton to discrete for fish and built a simple artificial freshwater pelagic food chain composed of algae Chlorella vulgaris, zooplankton Daphnia magna, and zebrafish. We conducted bioaccumulation experiments and simulations for Daphnia magna and zebrafish under different algal densities based on our model. The results showed that intermittent feeding led to a large fluctuation in the PAH-d10 concentrations in zebrafish compared to a leveled-off pattern in Daphnia magna because of approximately continuous feeding. Trophic dilution of PAHs-d10 occurred in the food chain when there was waterborne-only uptake, but dietary uptake largely mitigated its extent that depended on dietary uptake rates. The assimilation efficiency, dietary uptake rate, and its relative contribution to bioaccumulation of PAHs-d10 in zebrafish were all higher than those in Daphnia magna, suggesting that dietary uptake played a more important role in bioaccumulation of PAHs at higher trophic-level organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haotian Wang
- Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences of Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Xinghui Xia
- Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences of Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Zixuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences of Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Ran Liu
- Department of Mathematics, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Derek C G Muir
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1 Canada
| | - Wen-Xiong Wang
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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6
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Bergmann M, Graça MAS. Bioaccumulation and Dispersion of Uranium by Freshwater Organisms. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2020; 78:254-266. [PMID: 31650202 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-019-00677-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Uranium is the heaviest naturally occurring element on Earth. Uranium mining may result in ground and surface water contamination with potential bioaccumulation and dispersion by aquatic invertebrates with aerial stages. We investigated the effects of uranium contamination at community level in terms of abundance, richness, the composition of invertebrate communities, and functional traits. We also investigated uranium mobility across aquatic food webs and its transfer to land via the emergence of aquatic insects. We sampled water, sediment, biofilm, macrophytes, aquatic invertebrates, adult insects, and spiders in the riparian zone across sites with a gradient of uranium concentrations in stream water (from 2.1 to 4.7 µg L-1) and sediments (from 10.4 to 41.8 µg g-1). Macroinvertebrate assemblages differed between sites with a higher diversity and predominance of Nemouridae and Baetidae at the reference site and low diversity and predominance of Chironomidae in sites with the highest uranium concentration. Uranium concentrations in producers and consumers increased linearly with uranium concentration in stream water and sediment (p < 0.05). The highest accumulation was found in litter (83.76 ± 5.42 µg g-1) and macrophytes (47.58 ± 6.93 µg g-1) in the most contaminated site. Uranium was highest in scrapers (14.30 ± 0.98 µg g-1), followed by shredders (12.96 ± 0.81 µg g-1) and engulfer predators (7.01 ± 1.3 µg g-1). Uranium in adults of aquatic insects in the riparian zone in all sites ranged from 0.25 to 2.90 µg g-1, whereas in spiders it ranged from 0.96 to 1.73 µg g-1, with no differences between sites (p > 0.05). There was a negative relationship between δ15N and uranium, suggesting there is no biomagnification along food webs. We concluded that uranium is accumulated by producers and consumers but not biomagnified nor dispersed to land with the emergence of aquatic insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Bergmann
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3001-456, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Manuel A S Graça
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3001-456, Coimbra, Portugal
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7
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Nádudvari Á, Fabiańska MJ, Marynowski L, Kozielska B, Konieczyński J, Smołka-Danielowska D, Ćmiel S. Distribution of coal and coal combustion related organic pollutants in the environment of the Upper Silesian Industrial Region. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 628-629:1462-1488. [PMID: 30045566 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Revised: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a large sample set (276) was separated into up to 15 groups, including coal, fly ash, total particulate matter, coal wastes, river sediments, and different water types. Grouping the sample set into these categories helped to identify the typical features of combustion or water-washing and compare them using newly developed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon diagnostic ratios. A wide range of organic pollutants were identified in samples, including aromatic and polycyclic hydrocarbons, nitrogen-heterocycles, sulphur-heterocycles + trithiolane, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons substituted with oxygen functional groups. The distribution of compounds was significantly influenced by water washing or combustion. During the self-heating of coal wastes, secondary compounds such as chlorinated aromatics (chlorobenzene, chloroanthracene, etc.) or light sulphur compounds (e.g. benzenethiol and benzo[b]thiophene) were formed (synthesised). Since these compounds are generally absent in sedimentary organic matter, their origin may be connected with high-temperature formation in burning coal dumps. These compounds should be identified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the environment. The newly defined diagnostic ratios have worked well in separating samples (petrogenic and pyrogenic) and have pointed out the effect of incomplete combustion on self-heated coal waste, ash from domestic furnaces, or water washing and biodegradation of the studied compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ádám Nádudvari
- Institute for Ecology of Industrial Areas, 6 Kossutha St., 40-844 Katowice, Poland.
| | - Monika J Fabiańska
- Faculty of Earth Sciences, University of Silesia, 60 Będzińska St., 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland
| | - Leszek Marynowski
- Faculty of Earth Sciences, University of Silesia, 60 Będzińska St., 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland
| | - Barbara Kozielska
- Silesian University of Technology, Faculty of Power and Environmental Engineering, Department of Air Protection, 2 Akademicka St., 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Jan Konieczyński
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, Polish Academy of Sciences, 34 M. Skłodowskiej-Curie St., 41-819 Zabrze, Poland
| | | | - Stanisław Ćmiel
- Faculty of Earth Sciences, University of Silesia, 60 Będzińska St., 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland
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Relative importance of dietary uptake and waterborne exposure for a leaf-shredding amphipod exposed to thiacloprid-contaminated leaves. Sci Rep 2017; 7:16182. [PMID: 29170431 PMCID: PMC5700932 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-16452-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic neonicotinoids are commonly used in forest pest management programs. Senescent leaves containing neonicotinoids may, however, fall from treated trees into nearby streams. There, leaf-shredding invertebrates are particularly exposed due to their diet (feeding on neonicotinoid-contaminated leaves) or collaterally via the water phase (leaching of a neonicotinoid from leaves) – a fact not considered during aquatic environmental risk assessment. To unravel the relevance of these pathways we used leaves from trees treated with the neonicotinoid thiacloprid to subject the amphipod shredder Gammarus fossarum for 21 days (n = 40) either to dietary, waterborne or a combined (dietary + waterborne) exposure. Dietary exposure caused – relative to the control – similar reductions in gammarids’ leaf consumption (~35%) and lipid content (~20%) as observed for the waterborne exposure pathway (30 and 22%). The effect sizes observed under combined exposure suggested additivity of effects being largely predictable using the reference model “independent action”. Since gammarids accumulated – independent of the exposure pathway – up to 280 ng thiacloprid/g, dietary exposure may also be relevant for predators which prey on Gammarus. Consequently, neglecting dietary exposure might underestimate the environmental risk systemic insecticides pose for ecosystem integrity calling for its consideration during the evaluation and registration of chemical stressors.
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9
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Windsor FM, Ormerod SJ, Tyler CR. Endocrine disruption in aquatic systems: up-scaling research to address ecological consequences. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2017; 93:626-641. [PMID: 28795474 PMCID: PMC6849538 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Revised: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Endocrine‐disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can alter biological function in organisms at environmentally relevant concentrations and are a significant threat to aquatic biodiversity, but there is little understanding of exposure consequences for populations, communities and ecosystems. The pervasive nature of EDCs within aquatic environments and their multiple sub‐lethal effects make assessments of their impact especially important but also highly challenging. Herein, we review the data on EDC effects in aquatic systems focusing on studies assessing populations and ecosystems, and including how biotic and abiotic processes may affect, and be affected by, responses to EDCs. Recent research indicates a significant influence of behavioural responses (e.g. enhancing feeding rates), transgenerational effects and trophic cascades in the ecological consequences of EDC exposure. In addition, interactions between EDCs and other chemical, physical and biological factors generate uncertainty in our understanding of the ecological effects of EDCs within aquatic ecosystems. We illustrate how effect thresholds for EDCs generated from individual‐based experimental bioassays of the types commonly applied using chemical test guidelines [e.g. Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD)] may not necessarily reflect the hazards associated with endocrine disruption. We argue that improved risk assessment for EDCs in aquatic ecosystems urgently requires more ecologically oriented research as well as field‐based assessments at population‐, community‐ and food‐web levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredric M Windsor
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, U.K.,Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4PS, U.K
| | - Steve J Ormerod
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, U.K
| | - Charles R Tyler
- Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4PS, U.K
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10
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Boström ML, Ugge G, Jönsson JÅ, Berglund O. Bioaccumulation and trophodynamics of the antidepressants sertraline and fluoxetine in laboratory-constructed, 3-level aquatic food chains. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2017; 36:1029-1037. [PMID: 27696515 DOI: 10.1002/etc.3637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Revised: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 09/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Although reports of pharmaceutical bioconcentration in aquatic organisms are increasing, less is known about trophic transfer in aquatic food webs. The bioaccumulation and trophodynamics of sertraline and fluoxetine, 2 selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) frequently detected in aquatic environments, were tested by exposing constructed aquatic food chains to SSRIs under controlled laboratory conditions. Both of these ionizable, weak base pharmaceuticals showed lower bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) with increasing trophic level (i.e., no biomagnifications) in 2 3-level food chains (Acer platanoides, fed to Asellus aquaticus, in turn fed to Notonecta glauca or Pungitius pungitius). Mean sertraline BAFs in A. platanoides, A. aquaticus, N. glauca, and P. pungitus were 2200 L/kg, 360 L/kg, 26 L/kg, and 49 L/kg, respectively, and mean fluoxetine BAFs 1300 L/kg, 110 L/kg, 11 L/kg, and 41 L/kg, respectively. The weak influence of diet was further demonstrated by measured BAFs being equal to or lower than measured bioconcentration factors (BCFs). Organism lipid content was not positively correlated with BAFs, suggesting that other processes are driving interspecific differences in SSRI bioaccumulation. The empirically derived parameter values were introduced into a proposed bioaccumulation model, and a poor correlation was found between modeled and empirical BAFs (predicted r2 = -0.63). In conclusion, the apparent lack of biomagnification of these ionizable pharmaceuticals suggests that environmental concern should not necessarily focus only on higher trophic levels, but also on species showing high BCFs at any trophic level. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:1029-1037. © 2016 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marja L Boström
- Aquatic Ecology, Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Gustaf Ugge
- Aquatic Ecology, Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Jan Åke Jönsson
- Centre for Analysis and Synthesis, Department of Chemistry, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Olof Berglund
- Aquatic Ecology, Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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11
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Downs CA, Kramarsky-Winter E, Segal R, Fauth J, Knutson S, Bronstein O, Ciner FR, Jeger R, Lichtenfeld Y, Woodley CM, Pennington P, Cadenas K, Kushmaro A, Loya Y. Toxicopathological Effects of the Sunscreen UV Filter, Oxybenzone (Benzophenone-3), on Coral Planulae and Cultured Primary Cells and Its Environmental Contamination in Hawaii and the U.S. Virgin Islands. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2016; 70:265-88. [PMID: 26487337 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-015-0227-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 09/13/2015] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Benzophenone-3 (BP-3; oxybenzone) is an ingredient in sunscreen lotions and personal-care products that protects against the damaging effects of ultraviolet light. Oxybenzone is an emerging contaminant of concern in marine environments—produced by swimmers and municipal, residential, and boat/ship wastewater discharges. We examined the effects of oxybenzone on the larval form (planula) of the coral Stylophora pistillata, as well as its toxicity in vitro to coral cells from this and six other coral species. Oxybenzone is a photo-toxicant; adverse effects are exacerbated in the light. Whether in darkness or light, oxybenzone transformed planulae from a motile state to a deformed, sessile condition. Planulae exhibited an increasing rate of coral bleaching in response to increasing concentrations of oxybenzone. Oxybenzone is a genotoxicant to corals, exhibiting a positive relationship between DNA-AP lesions and increasing oxybenzone concentrations. Oxybenzone is a skeletal endocrine disruptor; it induced ossification of the planula, encasing the entire planula in its own skeleton. The LC50 of planulae exposed to oxybenzone in the light for an 8- and 24-h exposure was 3.1 mg/L and 139 µg/L, respectively. The LC50s for oxybenzone in darkness for the same time points were 16.8 mg/L and 779 µg/L. Deformity EC20 levels (24 h) of planulae exposed to oxybenzone were 6.5 µg/L in the light and 10 µg/L in darkness. Coral cell LC50s (4 h, in the light) for 7 different coral species ranges from 8 to 340 µg/L, whereas LC20s (4 h, in the light) for the same species ranges from 0.062 to 8 µg/L. Coral reef contamination of oxybenzone in the U.S. Virgin Islands ranged from 75 µg/L to 1.4 mg/L, whereas Hawaiian sites were contaminated between 0.8 and 19.2 µg/L. Oxybenzone poses a hazard to coral reef conservation and threatens the resiliency of coral reefs to climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Downs
- Haereticus Environmental Laboratory, P.O. Box 92, Clifford, VA 24533, USA.
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12
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Del Arco AI, Parra G, Rico A, Van den Brink PJ. Effects of intra- and interspecific competition on the sensitivity of aquatic macroinvertebrates to carbendazim. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2015; 120:27-34. [PMID: 26024811 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Revised: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The Ecological Risk Assessment of pesticides and other potentially toxic chemicals is generally based on toxicity data obtained from single-species laboratory experiments. In the field, however, contaminant effects are ubiquitously co-occurring with ecological interactions such as species competition and predation, which might influence the sensitivity of the individuals exposed to toxicants. The present experimental study investigated how intra- and interspecific competition influence the response of sensitive aquatic organisms to a pesticide. For this, the effects of the fungicide carbendazim were assessed on the mortality and growth of the snail Bithynia tentaculata and the crustacean Gammarus pulex under different levels of intraspecific and interspecific competition for a food resource. Interspecific competition was created by adding individuals of Radix peregra and Asellus aquaticus, respectively. The interaction of competition and carbendazim exposure significantly influenced B. tentaculata growth, however, combined effects on survival and immobility were considered transient and were less easily demonstrated. Positive influence of competition on G. pulex survival was observed under low-medium carbendazim concentrations and under medium-high density pressures, being partly related to cannibalistic and predation compensatory mechanisms, enhanced under food limiting conditions. This study shows that intra- and interspecific competition pressure may influence the response of sensitive aquatic organisms in a more complex way (positive, non-significant and negative effects were observed) than just increasing the sensitivity of the studied species, as has generally been hypothesized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Isabel Del Arco
- Department of Plant Biology, Animal Biology and Ecology, Jaén University, B3-078 Campus de las Lagunillas s/n, 23071 Jaén, Spain.
| | - Gema Parra
- Department of Plant Biology, Animal Biology and Ecology, Jaén University, B3-078 Campus de las Lagunillas s/n, 23071 Jaén, Spain
| | - Andreu Rico
- Alterra, Wageningen University and Research centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Paul J Van den Brink
- Alterra, Wageningen University and Research centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands; Department of Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management, Wageningen University, Wageningen University and Research centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
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13
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Del Arco AI, Rico A, van den Brink PJ. Effects of intra- and interspecific competition on the sensitivity of Daphnia magna populations to the fungicide carbendazim. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2015; 24:1362-1371. [PMID: 26119660 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-015-1512-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/10/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The ecological risk assessment of pesticides is generally based on toxicity data obtained from single-species laboratory experiments and does not take into account ecological interactions such as competition or predation. Intraspecific and interspecific competition are expected to result in additional stress and might increase the sensitivity of aquatic populations to pesticide contamination. To test this hypothesis, the effects of the fungicide carbendazim were assessed on the population dynamics of the micro-crustacean Daphnia magna under different levels of intraspecific and interspecific competition for an algal food resource, using the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus as competing species. The experiments were performed in glass jars with three different carbendazim concentrations (i.e., 50, 100 and 150 µg/L), and had a duration of 25 days, with a 4-day pre-treatment period in which competition was allowed to take place and a 21-day exposure period. The endpoints evaluated were D. magna total population abundance and population structure. Results of these experiments show that competition stress on its own had a significant influence on shaping D. magna population's structure, however, a different response was observed in the intraspecific and interspecific competition experiments. The use of a 4-day pre-treatment period in the intraspecific experiment already led to an absence of interactive effects due to the quick abundance confluence between the different intraspecific treatments, thus not allowing the observation of interactive effects between competition and carbendazim stress. Results of the interspecific competition experiment showed that rotifers were quickly outcompeted by D. magna and that D. magna even profited from the rotifer presence through exploitative competition, which alleviated the original stress caused by the algal resource limitation. These experiments suggest that competition interactions play an important role in defining population-level effects of pesticides in a more complex way than was hypothesized ("increasing competition leading to a sensitivity increase"), as the interspecific experiment showed. Therefore, these should be taken into account in the extrapolation of single-species toxicity data to protect higher levels of biological organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Isabel Del Arco
- Department of Plant Biology, Animal Biology and Ecology, Jaén University, B3 - 078 Campus de las Lagunillas s/n, 23071, Jaén, Spain,
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Careghini A, Mastorgio AF, Saponaro S, Sezenna E. Bisphenol A, nonylphenols, benzophenones, and benzotriazoles in soils, groundwater, surface water, sediments, and food: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:5711-41. [PMID: 25548011 PMCID: PMC4381092 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-014-3974-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 12/08/2014] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) are not commonly monitored in the environment, but they can enter the environment from a variety of sources. The most worrying consequence of their wide use and environmental diffusion is the increase in the possible exposure pathways for humans. Moreover, knowledge of their behavior in the environment, toxicity, and biological effects is limited or not available for most CECs. The aim of this work is to edit the state of the art on few selected CECs having the potential to enter the soil and aquatic systems and cause adverse effects in humans, wildlife, and the environment: bisphenol A (BPA), nonylphenol (NP), benzophenones (BPs), and benzotriazole (BT). Some reviews are already available on BPA and NP, reporting about their behavior in surface water and sediments, but scarce and scattered information is available about their presence in soil and groundwater. Only a few studies are available about BPs and BT in the environment, in particular in soil and groundwater. This work summarizes the information available in the literature about the incidence and behavior of these compounds in the different environmental matrices and food. In particular, the review focuses on the physical-chemical properties, the environmental fate, the major degradation byproducts, and the environmental evidence of the selected CECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessando Careghini
- DICA - Sezione Ambientale, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Filippo Mastorgio
- DICA - Sezione Ambientale, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Sabrina Saponaro
- DICA - Sezione Ambientale, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Elena Sezenna
- DICA - Sezione Ambientale, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
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15
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De Laender F, Morselli M, Baveco H, Van den Brink PJ, Di Guardo A. Theoretically exploring direct and indirect chemical effects across ecological and exposure scenarios using mechanistic fate and effects modelling. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2015; 74:181-90. [PMID: 25454235 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Revised: 09/23/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Predicting ecosystem response to chemicals is a complex problem in ecotoxicology and a challenge for risk assessors. The variables potentially influencing chemical fate and exposure define the exposure scenario while the variables determining effects at the ecosystem level define the ecological scenario. In absence of any empirical data, the objective of this paper is to present simulations by a fugacity-based fate model and a differential equation-based ecosystem model to theoretically explore how direct and indirect effects on invertebrate shallow pond communities vary with changing ecological and exposure scenarios. These simulations suggest that direct and indirect effects are larger in mesotrophic systems than in oligotrophic systems. In both trophic states, interaction strength (quantified using grazing rates) was suggested a more important driver for the size and recovery from direct and indirect effects than immigration rate. In general, weak interactions led to smaller direct and indirect effects. For chemicals targeting mesozooplankton only, indirect effects were common in (simple) food-chains but rare in (complex) food-webs. For chemicals directly affecting microzooplankton, the dominant zooplankton group in the modelled community, indirect effects occurred both in food-chains and food-webs. We conclude that the choice of the ecological and exposure scenarios in ecotoxicological modelling efforts needs to be justified because of its influence on the prevalence and magnitude of the predicted effects. Overall, more work needs to be done to empirically test the theoretical expectations formulated here.
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Affiliation(s)
- F De Laender
- Namur University, Research Unit in Environmental and Evolutionary Ecology, Rue de Bruxelles 61, 5000 Namur, Belgium.
| | - M Morselli
- Department of Science and High Technology, University of Insubria, Via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy.
| | - H Baveco
- Alterra, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - P J Van den Brink
- Alterra, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands; Department of Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management, Wageningen University, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - A Di Guardo
- Department of Science and High Technology, University of Insubria, Via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy.
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Bergeon Burns CM, Olin JA, Woltmann S, Stouffer PC, Taylor SS. Effects of Oil on Terrestrial Vertebrates: Predicting Impacts of the Macondo Blowout. Bioscience 2014. [DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biu124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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17
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Downs CA, Kramarsky-Winter E, Fauth JE, Segal R, Bronstein O, Jeger R, Lichtenfeld Y, Woodley CM, Pennington P, Kushmaro A, Loya Y. Toxicological effects of the sunscreen UV filter, benzophenone-2, on planulae and in vitro cells of the coral, Stylophora pistillata. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2014; 23:175-91. [PMID: 24352829 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-013-1161-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/07/2013] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Benzophenone-2 (BP-2) is an additive to personal-care products and commercial solutions that protects against the damaging effects of ultraviolet light. BP-2 is an "emerging contaminant of concern" that is often released as a pollutant through municipal and boat/ship wastewater discharges and landfill leachates, as well as through residential septic fields and unmanaged cesspits. Although BP-2 may be a contaminant on coral reefs, its environmental toxicity to reefs is unknown. This poses a potential management issue, since BP-2 is a known endocrine disruptor as well as a weak genotoxicant. We examined the effects of BP-2 on the larval form (planula) of the coral, Stylophora pistillata, as well as its toxicity to in vitro coral cells. BP-2 is a photo-toxicant; adverse effects are exacerbated in the light versus in darkness. Whether in darkness or light, BP-2 induced coral planulae to transform from a motile planktonic state to a deformed, sessile condition. Planulae exhibited an increasing rate of coral bleaching in response to increasing concentrations of BP-2. BP-2 is a genotoxicant to corals, exhibiting a strong positive relationship between DNA-AP lesions and increasing BP-2 concentrations. BP-2 exposure in the light induced extensive necrosis in both the epidermis and gastro dermis. In contrast, BP-2 exposure in darkness induced autophagy and autophagic cell death.The LC50 of BP-2 in the light for an 8 and 24 hour exposure was 120 parts per million (ppm) and 165 parts per billion (ppb), respectively. The LC50s for BP-2 in darkness for the same time points were 144 parts per million and 548 parts per billion [corrected].
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Downs
- Haereticus Environmental Laboratory, P.O. Box 92, Clifford, VA, 24533, USA,
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18
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Goss KU, Brown TN, Endo S. Elimination half-life as a metric for the bioaccumulation potential of chemicals in aquatic and terrestrial food chains. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2013; 32:1663-1671. [PMID: 23554060 DOI: 10.1002/etc.2229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Revised: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The assessment of chemicals as bioaccumulative in the regulatory process makes use of the bioconcentration factor as a metric. However, this metric does not account for the dietary uptake route and therefore cannot be applied to terrestrial food chains. In recent years, the biomagnification factor (BMF) and the trophic magnification factor (TMF) have been suggested as standard metrics for bioaccumulation. For regulatory purposes, though, the BMF and the TMF also suffer from a number of shortcomings. They are not applicable to assess uptake routes other than the diet (e.g., dermal uptake, as is important for personal care products). When measured in the field, they depend largely on biological and ecological factors and less so on the chemical's properties, and they are difficult to normalize and standardize. In the present study, the authors suggest the elimination half-life (EL0.5 ) of a chemical as an alternative metric for bioaccumulation. The EL0.5 is equivalent to the depuration rate constant (k2 ) that is measured in various bioaccumulation and bioconcentration tests. This metric can be applied to air- and water-breathing animals, and it is valuable for all uptake routes. It has a number of practical advantages over the BMF and the TMF. In combination with a standard uptake scenario, the EL0.5 can also be linked directly to a BMF threshold of unity. Thus, the EL0.5 as a bioaccumulation metric overcomes the shortcomings of the BMF and the TMF while still conserving the advantages of the latter metrics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai-Uwe Goss
- Department of Analytical Environmental Chemistry, UFZ-Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Leipzig, Germany.
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