Striking difference in antiproliferative activity of ruthenium- and osmium-nitrosyl complexes with azole heterocycles

New Ruthenium Nitrosyl Complexes Combining Potentially Photoactive Nitrosyl Group with the Magnetic Nitroxide Radicals as Ligands

Two ruthenium nitrosyl complexes of Na[RuNOCl4L] with nitronyl nitroxide radicals coordinated to ruthenium with N-donor pyridine rings were prepared and described. The crystal structure of both complexes is 1D or 2D polymeric, due to the additional coordination of sodium cation by bridging the chloride ligands or oxygen atoms of nitroxides. Partially, the oligomeric forms remain in the solutions of the complexes in acetonitrile. The magnetic measurements in the solid state demonstrate the presence of antiferromagnetic interactions through the exchange channels, with the distance between paramagnetic centers equal to 3.1-3.9 Å. The electrochemical behavior of the prepared complexes was investigated in acetonitrile solutions.

The Ruthenium Nitrosyl Moiety in Clusters: Trinuclear Linear μ-Hydroxido Magnesium(II)-Diruthenium(II), μ3-Oxido Trinuclear Diiron(III)-Ruthenium(II), and Tetranuclear μ4-Oxido Trigallium(III)-Ruthenium(II) Complexes

The ruthenium nitrosyl moiety, {RuNO}6, is important as a potential releasing agent of nitric oxide and is of inherent interest in coordination chemistry. Typically, {RuNO}6 is found in mononuclear complexes. Herein we describe the synthesis and characterization of several multimetal cluster complexes that contain this unit. Specifically, the heterotrinuclear μ3-oxido clusters [Fe2RuCl4(μ3-O)(μ-OMe)(μ-pz)2(NO)(Hpz)2] (6) and [Fe2RuCl3(μ3-O)(μ-OMe)(μ-pz)3(MeOH)(NO)(Hpz)][Fe2RuCl3(μ3-O)(μ-OMe)(μ-pz)3(DMF)(NO)(Hpz)] (7·MeOH·2H2O) and the heterotetranuclear μ4-oxido complex [Ga3RuCl3(μ4-O)(μ-OMe)3(μ-pz)4(NO)] (8) were prepared from trans-[Ru(OH)(NO)(Hpz)4]Cl2 (5), which itself was prepared via acidic hydrolysis of the linear heterotrinuclear complex {[Ru(μ-OH)(μ-pz)2(pz)(NO)(Hpz)]2Mg} (4). Complex 4 was synthesized from the mononuclear Ru complexes (H2pz)[trans-RuCl4(Hpz)2] (1), trans-[RuCl2(Hpz)4]Cl (2), and trans-[RuCl2(Hpz)4] (3). The new compounds 4-8 were all characterized by elemental analysis, ESI mass spectrometry, IR, UV-vis, and 1H NMR spectroscopy, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction, with complexes 6 and 7 being characterized also by temperature-dependent magnetic susceptibility measurements and Mössbauer spectroscopy. Magnetometry indicated a strong antiferromagnetic interaction between paramagnetic centers in 6 and 7. The ability of 4 and 6-8 to form linkage isomers and release NO upon irradiation in the solid state was investigated by IR spectroscopy. A theoretical investigation of the electronic structure of 6 by DFT and ab initio CASSCF/NEVPT2 calculations indicated a redox-noninnocent behavior of the NO ancillary ligand in 6, which was also manifested in TD-DFT calculations of its electronic absorption spectrum. The electronic structure of 6 was also studied by an X-ray charge density analysis.

Characteristic vibrational frequencies of osmium(ii) nitrosyl complexes probed by Raman spectroscopy and DFT calculations

Raman spectroscopy at variable temperature provides experimental frequencies for osmium(ii) nitrosyl complexes. Vibrational transitions are assigned using DFT calculations.

Ruthenium-nitrosyl complexes as NO-releasing molecules and potential anticancer drugs

The synthesis of new types of mono- and polynuclear ruthenium nitrosyl complexes is driving progress in the field of NO generation for a variety of applications. Light-induced Ru-NO bond dissociation...

Nitric oxide release and related light-induced cytotoxicity of ruthenium nitrosyls with coordinated nicotinate derivatives

The synthetic approaches for the preparation of trans(NO,OH)-cis(NO₂,NO₂)-[RuNO(L)₂(NO₂)₂OH], where L = ethyl nicotinate (I) and methyl nicotinate (II), are reported. The structures of the complexes are characterized by X-ray diffraction and analyzed by Hirshfeld surface analysis. Both compounds show a nitric oxide release reaction under 445 or 532 nm irradiation of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) solutions, which is studied by combined ultraviolet-visible- (UV-vis), infrared- (IR), and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The charge transfer from the OH-Ru-NO chain and nitrite ligands to the antibonding orbitals of Ru-NO is responsible for the photo-cleavage of the ruthenium-nitrosyl bond. The elimination of NO leads to a side reaction, namely the protonation of the parent hydroxyl compound. The cytotoxicity and photo-induced cytotoxicity investigations of both compounds on the breast adenocarcinoma cell line MCF-7 reveal that (I) and (II) are cytotoxic with IC₅₀ values of 27.5 ± 2.8 μM and 23.3 ± 0.3 μM, respectively. Moreover, (I) shows an increase of the toxicity after light irradiation by 7 times (IC₅₀ = 4.1 ± 0.1), which makes it a prominent target for deeper biological investigations.

Biological activity of bis(pyrazolylpyridine) and terpiridine Os(ii) complexes in the presence of biocompatible ionic liquids

New bis(pyrazolylpyridine) Os(ii) complexes showing possible biological activity with diverse modes of action in the presence of biocompatible ionic liquids as non-toxic cosolvents for sparingly soluble complexes.

Anticancer activity of complexes of the third row transition metals, rhenium, osmium, and iridium

A summary of recent developments on the anticancer activity of complexes of rhenium, osmium, and iridium is described.

cis-Tetrachlorido-bis(indazole)osmium(iv) and its osmium(iii) analogues: paving the way towards the cis-isomer of the ruthenium anticancer drugs KP1019 and/or NKP1339

The relationship between cis-trans isomerism and anticancer activity has been mainly addressed for square-planar metal complexes, in particular, for platinum(ii), e.g., cis- and trans-[PtCl2(NH3)2], and a number of related compounds, of which, however, only cis-counterparts are in clinical use today. For octahedral metal complexes, this effect of geometrical isomerism on anticancer activity has not been investigated systematically, mainly because the relevant isomers are still unavailable. An example of such an octahedral complex is trans-[RuCl4(Hind)2]-, which is in clinical trials now as its indazolium (KP1019) or sodium salt (NKP1339), but the corresponding cis-isomers remain inaccessible. We report the synthesis of Na[cis-OsIIICl4(κN2-1H-ind)2]·(Na[1]) suggesting a route to the cis-isomer of NKP1339. The procedure involves heating (H2ind)[OsIVCl5(κN1-2H-ind)] in a high boiling point organic solvent resulting in an Anderson rearrangement with the formation of cis-[OsIVCl4(κN2-1H-ind)2] ([1]) in high yield. The transformation is accompanied by an indazole coordination mode switch from κN1 to κN2 and stabilization of the 1H-indazole tautomer. Fully reversible spectroelectrochemical reduction of [1] in acetonitrile at 0.46 V vs. NHE is accompanied by a change in electronic absorption bands indicating the formation of cis-[OsIIICl4(κN2-1H-ind)2]- ([1]-). Chemical reduction of [1] in methanol with NaBH4 followed by addition of nBu4NCl afforded the osmium(iii) complex nBu4N[cis-OsIIICl4(κN2-1H-ind)2] (nBu4N[1]). A metathesis reaction of nBu4N[1] with an ion exchange resin led to the isolation of the water-soluble salt Na[1]. The X-ray diffraction crystal structure of [1]·Me2CO was determined and compared with that of trans-[OsIVCl4(κN2-1H-ind)2]·2Me2SO (2·2Me2SO), also prepared in this work. EPR spectroscopy was performed on the OsIII complexes and the results were analyzed by ligand-field and quantum chemical theories. We furthermore assayed effects of [1] and Na[1] on cell viability and proliferation in comparison with trans-[OsIVCl4(κN1-2H-ind)2] [3] and cisplatin and found a strong reduction of cell viability at concentrations between 30 and 300 μM in different cancer cell lines (HT29, H446, 4T1 and HEK293). HT-29 cells are less sensitive to cisplatin than 4T1 cells, but more sensitive to [1] and Na[1], as shown by decreased proliferation and viability as well as an increased late apoptotic/necrotic cell population.

A survey of the mechanisms of action of anticancer transition metal complexes

Metal complexes have been the subject of numerous investigations in oncology but, despite the plethora of newly synthesized compounds, their precise mechanisms of action remain generally unknown or, for the best, incompletely determined. The continuous development of efficient and sensitive techniques in analytical chemistry and molecular biology gives scientists new tools to gather information on how metal complexes can be effective toward cancer. This review focuses on recent findings about the anticancer mechanism of action of metal complexes and how the ligands can be used to tune their pharmacological and physicochemical properties.

Functionalized Benzimidazole Scaffolds: Privileged Heterocycle for Drug Design in Therapeutic Medicine

Benzimidazole derivatives are crucial structural scaffolds found in diverse libraries of biologically active compounds which are therapeutically useful agents in drug discovery and medicinal research. They are structural isosteres of naturally occurring nucleotides, which allows them to interact with the biopolymers of living systems. Hence, there is a need to couple the latest information with the earlier documentations to understand the current status of the benzimidazole nucleus in medicinal chemistry research. This present work unveils the benzimidazole core as a multifunctional nucleus that serves as a resourceful tool of information for synthetic modifications of old existing candidates in order to tackle drug resistance bottlenecks in therapeutic medicine. This manuscript deals with the recent advances in the synthesis of benzimidazole derivatives, the widespread biological activities as well as pharmacokinetic reports. These present them as a toolbox for fighting infectious diseases and also make them excellent candidates for future drug design.

Biological properties of novel ruthenium- and osmium-nitrosyl complexes with azole heterocycles

Since the discovery that nitric oxide (NO) is a physiologically relevant molecule, there has been great interest in the use of metal nitrosyl compounds as antitumor pharmaceuticals. Particularly interesting are those complexes which can deliver NO to biological targets. Ruthenium- and osmium-based compounds offer lower toxicity compared to other metals and show different mechanisms of action as well as different spectra of activity compared to platinum-based drugs. Novel ruthenium- and osmium-nitrosyl complexes with azole heterocycles were studied to elucidate their cytotoxicity and possible interactions with DNA. Apoptosis induction, changes of mitochondrial transmembrane potential and possible formation of reactive oxygen species were investigated as indicators of NO-mediated damage by flow cytometry. Results suggest that ruthenium- and osmium-nitrosyl complexes with the general formula (indazolium)[cis/trans-MCl₄(NO)(1H-indazole)] have pronounced cytotoxic potency in cancer cell lines. Especially the more potent ruthenium complexes strongly induce apoptosis associated with depolarization of mitochondrial membranes, and elevated reactive oxygen species levels. Furthermore, a slight yet not unequivocal trend to accumulation of intracellular cyclic guanosine monophosphate attributable to NO-mediated effects was observed.

Substituent directed selectivity in anion recognition by a new class of simple osmium-pyrazole derived receptors

The present article deals with the structurally, spectroscopically and electrochemically characterised osmium-bipyridyl derived complexes [(bpy)2Os(II)(HL1)Cl]ClO4 [1]ClO4 and [(bpy)2Os(II)(HL2)Cl]ClO4 [2]ClO4 incorporating neutral and monodentate pyrazole derivatives (HL) with one free NH function (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine, HL1 = pyrazole, HL2 = 3,5-dimethylpyrazole). The crystal structures of [1]ClO4 and [2]ClO4 reveal intramolecular hydrogen bonding interactions between the free NH proton of HL and the equatorially placed Cl(-) ligand (N-HCl) with donor-acceptor distances of 3.114(7) Å and 3.153(6) Å as well as intermolecular hydrogen bonding interactions between the NH proton and one of the oxygen atoms of ClO4(-) (N-HO) with donor-acceptor distances of 2.870(10) Å and 3.024(8) Å, respectively. The effect of hydrogen bonding interactions has translated into the less acidic nature of the NH proton of the coordinated HL with estimated pKa > 12. 1(+) and 2(+) exhibit reversible Os(II)/(III) and irreversible Os(III)/(IV) processes in CH3CN within ± 2.0 V versus SCE. The effect of 3,5-dimethyl substituted HL2 on 2(+) has been reflected in the appreciable lowering (40 mV) of the Os(II/III) potential, along with the further decrease in the acidity of the NH proton (pKa > 13.0) with regard to HL1 coordinated 1(+) (pKa: ∼ 12.3). The electronic spectral features of Os(ii) (1(+)/2(+)) and electrochemically generated Os(III) (1(2+)/2(2+)) derived complexes have been analysed by TD-DFT calculations. The efficacy of the 1(+) and 2(+) encompassing free NH proton towards the anion recognition process has been evaluated by different experimental investigations using a wide variety of anions. It however establishes that receptor 1(+) can recognise both F(-) and OAc(-) in acetonitrile solution, while 2(+) is exclusively selective for the F(-) ion.

Synthesis and crystal structure of nitrosoruthenium complexes cis-[Ru(NO)Py2Cl2(OH)] and cis-[Ru(NO)Py2Cl2(H2O)]Cl. Photoinduced transformations of cis-[Ru(NO)Py2Cl2(OH)]

We have synthesized the novel complexes cis-[Ru(NO)Py₂Cl₂(OH)] and cis-[Ru(NO)Py₂Cl₂(H₂O)]Cl that can be potential photoactive and bioactive materials.

Heteropentanuclear Oxalato-Bridged nd-4f (n=4, 5) Metal Complexes with NO Ligand: Synthesis, Crystal Structures, Aqueous Stability and Antiproliferative Activity

A series of heteropentanuclear oxalate-bridged Ru(NO)-Ln (4d-4f) metal complexes of the general formula (nBu4N)5[Ln{RuCl3(μ-ox)(NO)}4], where Ln=Y (2), Gd (3), Tb (4), Dy (5) and ox=oxalate anion, were obtained by treatment of (nBu4N)2[RuCl3(ox)(NO)] (1) with the respective lanthanide salt in 4:1 molar ratio. The compounds were characterized by elemental analysis, IR spectroscopy, electrospray ionization (ESI) mass spectrometry, while 1, 2, and 5 were in addition analyzed by X-ray crystallography, 1 by Ru K-edge XAS and 1 and 2 by (13)C NMR spectroscopy. X-ray diffraction showed that in 2 and 5 four complex anions [RuCl3(ox)(NO)](2-) are coordinated to Y(III) and Dy(III), respectively, with formation of [Ln{RuCl3(μ-ox)(NO)}4](5-) (Ln=Y, Dy). While Y(III) is eight-coordinate in 2, Dy(III) is nine-coordinate in 5, with an additional coordination of an EtOH molecule. The negative charge is counterbalanced by five nBu4N(+) ions present in the crystal structure. The stability of complexes 2 and 5 in aqueous medium was monitored by UV/Vis spectroscopy. The antiproliferative activity of ruthenium-lanthanide complexes 2-5 were assayed in two human cancer cell lines (HeLa and A549) and in a noncancerous cell line (MRC-5) and compared with those obtained for the previously reported Os(NO)-Ln (5d-4f) analogues (nBu4N)5[Ln{OsCl3(ox)(NO)}4] (Ln=Y (6), Gd (7), Tb (8), Dy (9)). Complexes 2-5 were found to be slightly more active than 1 in inhibiting the proliferation of HeLa and A549 cells, and significantly more cytotoxic than 5d-4f metal complexes 6-9 in terms of IC50 values. The highest antiproliferative activity with IC50 values of 20.0 and 22.4 μM was found for 4 in HeLa and A549 cell lines, respectively. These cytotoxicity results are in accord with the presented ICP-MS data, indicating five- to eightfold greater accumulation of ruthenium versus osmium in human A549 cancer cells.

Development of anticancer agents: wizardry with osmium

Platinum compounds are one of the pillars of modern cancer chemotherapy. The apparent disadvantages of existing chemotherapeutics have led to the development of novel anticancer agents with alternative modes of action. Many complexes of the heavy metal osmium (Os) are potent growth inhibitors of human cancer cells and are active in vivo, often superior or comparable to cisplatin, as the benchmark metal-based anticancer agent, or clinically tested ruthenium (Ru) drug candidates. Depending on the choice of ligand system, osmium compounds exhibit diverse modes of action, including redox activation, DNA targeting or inhibition of protein kinases. In this review, we highlight recent advances in the development of osmium anticancer drug candidates and discuss their cellular mechanisms of action.

Ruthenium-nitrosyl complexes with glycine, L-alanine, L-valine, L-proline, D-proline, L-serine, L-threonine, and L-tyrosine: synthesis, X-ray diffraction structures, spectroscopic and electrochemical properties, and antiproliferative activity

The reactions of [Ru(NO)Cl5](2-) with glycine (Gly), L-alanine (L-Ala), L-valine (L-Val), L-proline (L-Pro), D-proline (D-Pro), L-serine (L-Ser), L-threonine (L-Thr), and L-tyrosine (L-Tyr) in n-butanol or n-propanol afforded eight new complexes (1-8) of the general formula [RuCl3(AA-H)(NO)](-), where AA = Gly, L-Ala, L-Val, L-Pro, D-Pro, L-Ser, L-Thr, and L-Tyr, respectively. The compounds were characterized by elemental analysis, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), (1)H NMR, UV-visible and ATR IR spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, and X-ray crystallography. X-ray crystallography studies have revealed that in all cases the same isomer type (from three theoretically possible) was isolated, namely mer(Cl),trans(NO,O)-[RuCl3(AA-H)(NO)], as was also recently reported for osmium analogues with Gly, L-Pro, and D-Pro (see Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem. 2013, 639, 1590-1597). Compounds 1, 4, 5, and 8 were investigated by ESI-MS with regard to their stability in aqueous solution and reactivity toward sodium ascorbate. In addition, cell culture experiments in three human cancer cell lines, namely, A549 (nonsmall cell lung carcinoma), CH1 (ovarian carcinoma), and SW480 (colon carcinoma), were performed, and the results are discussed in conjunction with the lipophilicity of compounds.

Heteronuclear gold(I)-silver(I) sulfanylcarboxylates: Synthesis, structure and cytotoxic activity against cancer cell lines

Heteronuclear complexes of the type [AgAu(PPh3)2(xspa)] [H2xspa=3-(aryl)-2-sulfanylpropenoic acids; (x=3-phenyl-; 3-(2-chlorophenyl)-; 3-(o-methoxyphenyl)-; 3-(p-methoxyphenyl)-; 3-(p-hydroxyphenyl)-; 3-(2-furyl)-; 3-(2-thienyl)-; spa=2-sulfanylpropenoate)] were prepared by reacting the appropriate [Au(PPh3)(Hxspa)] precursor with Ag(PPh3)NO3. The compounds were characterized by spectroscopic methods, (IR; (1)H, (13)C and (31)P NMR) and mass spectrometry and the structures of the phenyl and p-methoxyphenyl derivatives were determined by X-ray diffraction. The in vitro antitumor activity against the HeLa-229, A2780 and A2780cis cell lines was determined and compared with that of cisplatin and the equivalent homonuclear gold(I) complexes.

Dicopper(II) and dizinc(II) complexes with nonsymmetric dinucleating ligands based on indolo[3,2-c]quinolines: synthesis, structure, cytotoxicity, and intracellular distribution

Dicopper(II) and dizinc(II) complexes [Cu2((MeOOC)L(COO))(CH3COO)2] (1) and [Zn2((MeOOC)L(COO))(CH3COO)2] (2) were synthesized by reaction of Cu(CH3COO)2·H2O and Zn(CH3COO)2·2H2O with a new nonsymmetric dinucleating ligand (EtOOC)HL(COOEt) prepared by condensation of 6-hydrazinyl-11H-indolo[3,2-c]quinoline with diethyl-2,2'-((3-formyl-2-hydroxy-5-methylbenzyl)azanediyl)diacetate. The design and synthesis of this elaborate ligand was performed with the aim of increasing the aqueous solubility of indolo[3,2-c]quinolines, known as biologically active compounds, and investigating the antiproliferative activity in human cancer cell lines and the cellular distribution by exploring the intrinsic fluorescence of the indoloquinoline scaffold. The compounds have been comprehensively characterized by elemental analysis, spectroscopic methods (IR, UV-vis, (1)H and (13)C NMR spectroscopy), ESI mass spectrometry, magnetic susceptibility measurements, and UV-vis complex formation studies (for 1) as well as by X-ray crystallography (1 and 2). The antiproliferative activity of (EtOOC)HL(COOEt), 1, and 2 was determined by the MTT assay in three human cancer cell lines, namely, A549 (nonsmall cell lung carcinoma), CH1 (ovarian carcinoma), and SW480 (colon adenocarcinoma), yielding IC50 values in the micromolar concentration range and showing dependence on the cell line. The effect of metal coordination on cytotoxicity of (EtOOC)HL(COOEt) is also discussed. The subcellular distribution of (EtOOC)HL(COOEt) and 2 was investigated by fluorescence microscopy, revealing similar localization for both compounds in cytoplasmic structures.