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Dogruer Erkok S, Gallois R, Leegwater L, Gonzalez PC, van Asten A, McCord B. Combining surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and paper spray mass spectrometry (PS-MS) for illicit drug detection. Talanta 2024; 278:126414. [PMID: 38950500 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2024.126414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024]
Abstract
There is an ongoing effort in the US illicit drug market to make new psychoactive compounds more potent and addictive. Due to continuous chemical modifications, many fentanyl analogs are developed and mixed with more traditional illicit drugs, such as cocaine and heroin. Detecting fentanyl and fentanyl analogs in these illicit drug mixtures has become more crucial because of the increased potency and associated health risks. Most confirmatory procedures require time-consuming and expensive, highly sophisticated laboratory equipment and experimental procedures, which can delay critical information that might save a victim or find a suspect. In this study, we propose miniaturizing and accelerating this process by combining surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) analysis and paper spray mass spectrometry (PS-MS). For this aim, dual-purposed paper substrates were developed through soaking in Au/Ag nanostars suspensions. These novel, in-house prepared paper SERS substrates showed stability for up to four weeks with and without the presence of drug compounds. Fentanyl analogs with similar SERS spectra were differentiated by coupling with PS-MS. The limit of detection (LOD) for fentanyl on the paper substrates is 34 μg/mL and 0.32 μg/mL for SERS and PS-MS, respectively. Fentanyl and fentanyl analogs show selective SERS enhancement that helped to detect trace amounts of these opioids in heroin and cocaine street samples. In short, we propose the combination of SERS/PS-MS by using modified paper substrates to develop cost-effective, sensitive, rapid, portable, reliable, and reproducible methods to detect illicit drugs, especially trace amounts of fentanyl and fentanyl analogs in illicit drug mixtures. The combination of these two category A techniques allows for the identification of illicit drugs according to the SWGDRUG guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sevde Dogruer Erkok
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Roxanne Gallois
- Department of Chemistry, L'Ecole Normale Superieure de Lyon and Claude Bernard University, Lyon, France
| | - Leon Leegwater
- Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Pascal Camoiras Gonzalez
- Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Arian van Asten
- Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; CLHC, Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Bruce McCord
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA.
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Nazdrajić E, Rickert DA, Pawliszyn J. Rapid Analysis of Fentanyl and Fentanyl Analogues from Whole Blood Using SPME Coupled to the Microfluidic Open Interface. Anal Chem 2024; 96:821-827. [PMID: 38158586 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c04354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Fentanyl and its analogues are potent opioids that pose a significant threat to society. Over the last several years, considerable focus has been on the concerning trend of increasing fentanyl usage among drug users. Fentanyl analogues are mainly synthesized to evade analytical detection or increase their potency; thus, very low concentrations are sufficient to achieve a therapeutic effect. In an effort to help combat the synthetic opioid epidemic, developing targeted mass spectrometric methods for quantifying fentanyl and its analogues at ultralow concentrations is incredibly important. Most methods used to analyze fentanyl and its analogues from whole blood require manual sample preparation protocols (solid-phase extraction or liquid-liquid extraction), followed by chromatographic separation and mass spectrometric detection. The main disadvantages of these methods are the tedious sample preparation workflows, resulting in lengthy analysis times. To mitigate these issues, we present a targeted method capable of analyzing 96 samples containing fentanyl, several fentanyl analogues, and a common fentanyl (analogue) precursor simultaneously in 2.4 min per sample. This is possible by using a high-throughput solid phase microextraction workflow on the Concept96 autosampler followed by manual coupling of solid-phase microextraction fibers to the microfluidic open interface for tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Our quantitative method is capable of extremely sensitive analysis, with limits of quantification ranging from 0.002 to 0.031 ng mL-1 and linearity ranging from 0.010 to 25.0 ng mL-1. The method shows very good reproducibility (1-18%), accuracy (81-100%) of calibration and validation points, and good interday reproducibility (6-15%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Emir Nazdrajić
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo N2L 3G1, ON, Canada
| | - Daniel A Rickert
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo N2L 3G1, ON, Canada
| | - Janusz Pawliszyn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo N2L 3G1, ON, Canada
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Jiang S, Zhao J, Yan H, Xiang P, Shen M. Analysis of 15 anti-obesity drugs in urine using thermal-assisted paper spray mass spectrometry. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2023; 15:4434-4441. [PMID: 37606058 DOI: 10.1039/d3ay00559c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Anti-obesity drugs, used to suppress appetite and reduce fat absorption, have been circulated and traded illegally worldwide. The traditional methods of liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for analyzing these drugs in in vivo samples require complex sample pretreatment and time-consuming procedures. To address this issue, a thermal-assisted paper spray mass spectrometry (PS-MS) method was developed in this study to analyze anti-obesity drugs in raw urine. By incorporating a heat source and optimizing the spray solvent and paper substrate, this technique demonstrates reduced matrix effect and higher sensitivity compared to traditional PS-MS methodology for direct analysis of anti-obesity drugs in urine samples. A temperature range of 100-200 °C can be set for screening anti-obesity drugs in urine samples, with the flexibility to adjust the temperature according to the specific drug being analyzed. The limits of detection (LODs) for these 15 anti-obesity drugs in urine ranged between 1 and 500 ng mL-1. Furthermore, the thermal-assisted PS-MS method exhibited good linearities (R2, 0.9903-0.9997) within the range from 10-100 to 1000 ng mL-1 for the direct quantitation of anti-obesity drugs in urine samples with an internal standard. Therefore, the thermal-assisted PS-MS technique may provide a novel approach for the direct analysis of drugs in complex samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijia Jiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, 200063, China.
- Criminal Justice College, East China University of Political Science and Law, Shanghai, 200042, China
| | - Junbo Zhao
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, 200063, China.
| | - Hui Yan
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, 200063, China.
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, 200063, China.
| | - Min Shen
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, 200063, China.
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Prunty S, Carmany D, Dhummakupt ES, Manicke NE. Pressure sensitive adhesives and paper spray-mass spectrometry for the collection and analysis of fentanyl-related compounds from shipping materials. J Forensic Sci 2023; 68:1615-1625. [PMID: 37493221 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
The rise of fentanyl and fentanyl analogs in the drug supply pose serious threats to public health. Much of these compounds enter the United States through shipping routes. Here we provide a method for fentanyl screening and analysis that utilizes pressure-sensitive adhesive (PSA) lined paper to recover drug residues from parcel-related surfaces. The paper used is commercially available repositionable notes (also called post-it or sticky notes). From this paper, mass spectra were obtained by paper spray-mass spectrometry (PS-MS), where PSA paper served as both a sampling and analysis substrate. Seven fentanyl-related compounds were analyzed: fentanyl, 4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine (4-ANPP), N,1-diphenethyl-N-phenylpiperidin-4-amine (phenethyl-4-ANPP), valerylfentanyl, 4-fluoroisobutyrylfentanyl (4-FIBF), carfentanil, and p-fluorofentanyl. These compounds were recovered by PSA paper and identified by PS-MS from packaging tape and plastic at 50 ng and from cardboard and shipping labels at 100 ng. The impact of cutting agents on PS-MS analysis of fentanyl analogs was explored. No trends of analyte suppression were found at high concentrations of the cutting agents caffeine, diphenhydramine, and lidocaine when recovered from surfaces. A cartridge that required no precise cutting of PSA paper prior to sampling or analysis was evaluated for use in PS-MS for fentanyl screening. Recovery and detection of fentanyl from plastic sheeting was demonstrated with this cut-free cartridge. The cut-free cartridge showed somewhat less consistency and lower analyte signal than the standard cartridge, but performance was suitable for potential screening applications. In combining PSA surface sampling with PS-MS for drug screening, both sampling and detection of fentanyl-related compounds is simple, rapid, and low-cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Prunty
- Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | | | | | - Nicholas E Manicke
- Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- David Love
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
| | - Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA
- 70113 Street, N.W., Suite 750, Washington, DC, 20005-3967, USA
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Rankin‐Turner S, Reynolds JC, Turner MA, Heaney LM. Applications of ambient ionization mass spectrometry in 2021: An annual review. ANALYTICAL SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 3:67-89. [PMID: 38715637 PMCID: PMC10989594 DOI: 10.1002/ansa.202100067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/26/2024]
Abstract
Ambient ionization mass spectrometry (AIMS) has revolutionized the field of analytical chemistry, enabling the rapid, direct analysis of samples in their native state. Since the inception of AIMS almost 20 years ago, the analytical community has driven the further development of this suite of techniques, motivated by the plentiful advantages offered in addition to traditional mass spectrometry. Workflows can be simplified through the elimination of sample preparation, analysis times can be significantly reduced and analysis remote from the traditional laboratory space has become a real possibility. As such, the interest in AIMS has rapidly spread through analytical communities worldwide, and AIMS techniques are increasingly being integrated with standard laboratory operations. This annual review covers applications of AIMS techniques throughout 2021, with a specific focus on AIMS applications in a number of key fields of research including disease diagnostics, forensics and security, food safety testing and environmental sciences. While some new techniques are introduced, the focus in AIMS research is increasingly shifting from the development of novel techniques toward efforts to improve existing AIMS techniques, particularly in terms of reproducibility, quantification and ease-of-use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Rankin‐Turner
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and ImmunologyJohns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - James C. Reynolds
- Department of ChemistryLoughborough UniversityLoughboroughLeicestershireUK
| | - Matthew A. Turner
- Department of ChemistryLoughborough UniversityLoughboroughLeicestershireUK
| | - Liam M. Heaney
- School of SportExercise and Health SciencesLoughborough UniversityLoughboroughLeicestershireUK
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Brown HM, Doppalapudi KR, Fedick PW. Accelerated synthesis of energetic precursor cage compounds using confined volume systems. Sci Rep 2021; 11:24093. [PMID: 34916525 PMCID: PMC8677777 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02945-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Confined volume systems, such as microdroplets, Leidenfrost droplets, or thin films, can accelerate chemical reactions. Acceleration occurs due to the evaporation of solvent, the increase in reactant concentration, and the higher surface-to-volume ratios amongst other phenomena. Performing reactions in confined volume systems derived from mass spectrometry ionization sources or Leidenfrost droplets allows for reaction conditions to be changed quickly for rapid screening in a time efficient and cost-saving manner. Compared to solution phase reactions, confined volume systems also reduce waste by screening reaction conditions in smaller volumes prior to scaling. Herein, the condensation of glyoxal with benzylamine (BA) to form hexabenzylhexaazaisowurtzitane (HBIW), an intermediate to the highly desired energetic compound 2,4,6,8,10,12-hexanitro-2,4,6,8,10,12-hexaazaisowurtzitane (CL-20), was explored. Five confined volume systems were compared to evaluate which technique was ideal for forming this complex cage structure. Substituted amines were also explored as BA replacements to screen alternative cage structure intermediates and evaluate how these accelerated techniques could apply to novel reactions, discover alternative reagents to form the cage compound, and improve synthetic routes for the preparation of CL-20. Ultimately, reaction acceleration is ideal for predicting the success of novel reactions prior to scaling up and determining if the expected products form, all while saving time and reducing costs. Acceleration factors and conversion ratios for each reaction were assessed by comparing the amount of product formed to the traditional bulk solution phase synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilary M Brown
- Chemistry Division, Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division (NAWCWD), United States Navy Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), China Lake, CA, 93555, USA
| | - Karan R Doppalapudi
- Chemistry Division, Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division (NAWCWD), United States Navy Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), China Lake, CA, 93555, USA
| | - Patrick W Fedick
- Chemistry Division, Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division (NAWCWD), United States Navy Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), China Lake, CA, 93555, USA.
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Sisco E, Burns A, Moorthy A. Development and evaluation of a synthetic opioid targeted gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method. J Forensic Sci 2021; 66:2369-2380. [PMID: 34459514 PMCID: PMC9922096 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
As seized drug casework becomes increasingly complex due to the continued prevalence of emerging drugs, laboratories are often looking for new analytical approaches including developing methods for the analysis of specific compounds classes. Recent efforts have focused on the development of targeted gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) confirmation methods to compliment the information-rich screening results produced by techniques like direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry (DART-MS). In this work, a method for the confirmation of synthetic opioids and related compounds was developed and evaluated. An 11-component test solution was used to develop a method that focused on minimizing overlapping retention time acceptance windows and understanding the influence of instrument parameters on reproducibility and sensitivity. Investigated settings included column type, flow rate, temperature program, inlet temperature, source temperature, and tune type. Using a DB-200 column, a 35-min temperature ramped method was created. It was evaluated against a suite of 222 synthetic opioids and related compounds, and successfully differentiated all but four compound pairs based on nonoverlapping retention time acceptance windows or objectively different mass spectra. Compared to a general confirmatory method used in casework, the targeted method was up to 25 times more sensitive and provided at least a two-fold increase in retention time differences. Analysis of extracts from actual case samples successfully demonstrated utility of the method and showed no instance of carryover, although the high polarity column required wider retention time windows than other columns.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amber Burns
- Maryland State Police Forensic Sciences Division
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